International Journal of Masonry Research and Innovation (16 papers in press)

Regular Issues

• Roots of failure of cultural heritage structures induced by the 2023 Kahramanmaras earthquakes  
  by Enes Arkan, Mustafa Topalan, Gabriele Milani, Ercan Işık, Fatih Avcil, Aydın Büyüksaraç, Rabia İzol, Musa Hakan Arslan, Mine Topçubaşı, Emine Dağtekin, Hatice Derya Arslan 
  Abstract: The earthquakes in Turkiye on February 6, 2023, resulted in devastating losses, impacting approximately 14% of the countrys population and causing severe structural damage to historic buildings. This study focuses on the historical structures in Hatay, Adyaman, and Kahramanmaras, with particular attention to Sanlurfa, home to some of humanitys oldest monumental sites. These buildings, primarily constructed using masonry techniques, experienced varying degrees of damage from the earthquakes. Some structures suffered partial collapse, while others total collapse. The study includes a comparative examination of selected buildings in the affected area, assessing their condition before and after the earthquakes. It explores the cause and-effect relationships regarding the damages observed and offers recommendations for future preservation and resilience. Additionally, the research provides detailed historical context for the examined structures, highlighting their significance and the impact of the earthquakes on their integrity and heritage.
  Keywords: Kahramanmaras earthquakes; cultural heritage; historical building; structural damage; masonry structure.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2025.10069200
   
  
• A polyhedral approximation of the yield domain for masonry sections  
  by Filomena Galizia, Alberto Fiorenza, Carlalberto Anselmi, Enrico Babilio 
  Abstract: In this paper, the problem of approximating the yield domain of a generic masonry section subjected to a compressive normal force is addressed. The masonry is modelled as a no-tension material with limited strength in compression and the actual yield domain is a surface described by nonlinear functions dependent on the normal force and bending moments. A suitable polyhedral approximation of such a domain is proposed. Since the goal is its use in limit analysis, to assess the practical applicability of the polyhedral domain, the multiplier of collapse loads is estimated for an elementary case study under different loading conditions.
  Keywords: approximated yield surface; limit analysis; no-tension masonry; limited compressive strength; eccentric normal force.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2025.10069955
   
  
• Thermal properties of earth bricks: a review from 2010 until 2020  
  by Noreriyawaty Binti Mat Rani, Badorul Hisham Bin Abu Bakar, Hussin Bin Mamat 
  Abstract: This paper reviews the thermal properties of earth bricks, specifically examining research conducted between 2010 and 2020. The study focuses on key thermal properties, including thermal conductivity, resistance, diffusivity, effusivity, and transmittance, while also exploring the effects of additives on these properties. Findings from multiple studies are summarised, showcasing the performance of earth bricks across parameters like density, water absorption, and specific heat. The review highlights the promising thermal properties of earth bricks, making them suitable for sustainable building applications. However, it also identifies significant variations in thermal performance across different studies, primarily due to variations in soil type, additives used, and manufacturing processes. The paper concludes with suggestions for future research, emphasising the need for broader material performance metrics, the development of multi-functional earth bricks, the integration of computational models, comparisons with other sustainable materials, and the standardisation of testing protocols.
  Keywords: earth bricks; thermal properties; density; specific heat; water absorption; thermal conductivity; thermal resistance; thermal diffusivity; thermal effusivity; thermal transmittance.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2025.10071075
   
  
• Experimental study on reuse of construction and demolition waste as fine aggregate in mortar  
  by Tinu Lusi, Sudisht Mishra 
  Abstract: The construction and demolition (C&D) waste is not easily disposed of. The manuscript is an effort to reuse such waste as recycled aggregate and lower the burden on quarry sites of natural aggregate. The research problem is the insufficient data in the region of study, which is the use of construction waste in mortar application. Numerous works are reusing C&D waste as a recycled coarse aggregate in concrete; however, studies on reusing such waste as fine recycled aggregate in mortar production are limited. The people of the region are unaware of the benefits of reusing construction waste. It was found feasible to reuse C&D waste as recycled fine aggregate in mortar as a partial replacement for sand. The experimental study found 35% of replacement by weight as the optimum % of replacement of sand with C&D waste recycled aggregate.
  Keywords: reuse; recycled aggregate; fine aggregates; mortar; construction and demolition waste; CDW.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2025.10071661
   
  
• Experimental characterisation of physical, thermal, transport and mechanical properties of 13 French limestones  
  by Ayoub Daoudi, Francesca Sciarretta, Javad Eslami, Anne-Lise Beaucour, Albert Noumowé 
  Abstract: The paper presents microstructural, physical, thermal, water transport and mechanical tests on 13 types of limestones from France. In comparison to literature information, the investigated limestones are mainly more porous and less strong. The 95% intervals of confidence for the mechanical and physical properties enlighten that the stones of medium-high density show the highest variability in results. A principal component analysis (PCA) has been performed to identify groups of stones with similar behaviours, based on the density and porosity variations, but with a remarkable influence of peak pore radius. Nonlinear equations express the compressive strength, indirect tensile strength, P-wave velocity, capillary water absorption, thermal conductivity and diffusivity of the limestones as functions of the porosity. Such relations enlighten the need to take into account the influence of microstructural characteristics especially texture and pore size distribution on the limestones macroscopic properties.
  Keywords: limestone; France; POSTFIRE; material characterisation; microstructure; compressive strength; indirect tensile strength; P-wave velocity; capillary water absorption; thermal properties.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2025.10073377
   
  
• Development of a model to measure and improve the maturity of building information modelling in engineering colleges in Syrian universities  
  by Lama Saoud 
  Abstract: The need to integrate BIM with education has increased recently to meet the labour market. Many international studies have provided BIM maturity models for companies, organisations, and individuals, but there is a great lack of BIM maturity models for higher engineering education institutions. The research is concerned with the development of a BIM maturity matrix model to measure and improve the maturity of BIM in the faculties of civil and architectural engineering. The model relies on selecting the most appropriate criteria for evaluating the maturity of BIM and defining several levels of maturity, based on interviews with stakeholders in engineering colleges and companies. The developed maturity model includes three domains; technology, processes and policies. It measures maturity against 26 criteria. This model introduces a framework for adopting BIM in Syrian colleges. The model was fed with data collected from 26 engineering colleges in Syrian private and public universities. The maturity model was analysed to obtain a general assessment and description of the maturity of engineering colleges in Syria, and then the maturity degree of the criteria was analysed, which indicated the strengths and weaknesses of adopting BIM in engineering education in Syrian universities.
  Keywords: engineering education; BIM maturity; adopting BIM; BIM challenges.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2025.10073510
   
  
• Improvement of construction waste management by waste reduction in the design phase using BIM  
  by Mohamed H. Shaban, Hassan Mohammad Ali 
  Abstract: The building construction industry is one of the most important contributors to waste production globally; therefore, researchers efforts focused on reducing construction waste CW. Design is a crucial stage in the formation of construction waste by determining the sizes and dimensions of building elements, items, and the resulting formation of some remaining/unused materials or resources. The research aims to develop a method to reduce construction waste using Building Information Modelling (BIM) techniques in the design and implementation phases. The developed methodology showed the possibility of reducing floor finishing waste by an average of 92% of the waste in previous conventional methods, using Dynamo visual programming. This model helps to develop the concept of worker-oriented implementation in carrying out activities based on the results of waste that will appear in each part of the building during the design phase, which saves the project cost as a result of reducing waste.
  Keywords: building information modelling; waste reduction; construction waste reduces by BIM; visual programming; waste generation factors; waste reduction factors.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2026.10074568
   
  
• Influence of dowel bars on the out-of-plane behaviour of masonry walls under earthquake loads  
  by Wanchai Yodsudjai, Nattapong Paewchompoo, Satja Jantharaksa, Thanatorn Chantharatreerat, Preaw Poomchodchuang, Thanyaporn Yakhasem 
  Abstract: This study tested three materials (clay brick, concrete block and lightweight concrete block) consisting of a wall without a dowel bar, with dowel bar spacing of 200 mm, 400 mm and 600 mm. The experiment collected data on maximum load, wall deflection and strain in the dowel bars. Moreover, a single-storey building from construction plan no. 7 issued by the Department of Public Works and Town & Country Planning, Thailand, along with simulations of walls in the laboratory, were modelled with SAP2000 to analyse and compare the results of maximum stress and maximum load of the structure. As a result, it was found that the bearing capacity of the walls with dowel bars was higher than those of the walls without dowel bars. In addition, the failure pattern of the walls with dowel bars was different from those without any dowel bars.
  Keywords: masonry wall; dowel bar; out-of-plane load.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2025.10075136
   
  
• A new SCG method for ANN training in seismic vulnerability prediction of RC multistorey buildings with masonry infills in Zakho City  
  by Neven Eoarsh Zaya, Bayda Ghanim Fathi, Salim T. Yousif 
  Abstract: This study introduces a new spectral conjugate gradient (SCG) method for solving large-scale nonlinear unconstrained optimisation problems in structural engineering. The method guarantees sufficient descent directions and global convergence under standard assumptions. Numerical tests show its improved efficiency over the classic Dai-Yuan algorithm. The proposed method is applied to train a feedforward neural network to predict the seismic vulnerability of existing multistorey buildings with masonry infills in Zakho City, Kurdistan Region of Iraq. Using key structural and geotechnical parameters, the network trained with the new SCG method converges faster with the reduction in execution time by more than 35% compared to Dai-Yuan algorithm. This work demonstrates the potential of combining advanced optimisation with artificial neural networks (ANN) for effective seismic risk assessment in earthquake-prone regions. New ANN model is formulated as a straightforward expression in terms properties of the buildings without using a tedious process of codes for building vulnerability.
  Keywords: seismic vulnerability; RC structures; spectral conjugate gradient method; nonlinear optimisation; global convergence property; artificial neural networks; ANNs.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2026.10075486
   
  
• Geochemical characterisation of ancient fired bricks used in the 16th century CE first Mughal Mosque situated in the Haryana region of the Indian subcontinent: reference to restoration and conservation  
  by Amit Kumar Mishra, Sanchit Kumar, Anshumali 
  Abstract: The first Mughal Mosque of India, a structure of Indo-Islamic architecture known as Kabuli Bagh, was constructed in 1526 CE in the Haryana region (Panipat) of India. Our study determined the changes in the brick characteristics using different physical and instrumental techniques to understand mosque restoration and conservation activities. The results showed that the used mosque bricks are hydraulic in nature with low expansion tendency and high compressive strength. The bricks were produced from raw material that contains high silica and Ca-poor clays at a firing temperature of ~900 C. Our study revealed that the mosque bricks can withstand deterioration. However, the heritage mosque bricks are deteriorating due to the cumulative impacts of anthropogenic emissions and climatic factors. Hence, for the sustainable conservation of the Kabuli Bagh structure, our study suggests that the new bricks used in the mosque should be compatible with the original ones to withstand deterioration.
  Keywords: bricks; composition; firing temperature; compatibility; conservation.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2026.10076050
   
  
• Flexural strength of bamboo reinforced stabilised rammed earth  
  by Prasanna Kumar Parameswarappa, Vaibhav Goni, Anish Adapa 
  Abstract: The main focus of this study is to evaluate the feasibility of bamboo reinforced rammed earth beams as a load bearing flexural member over small openings above doors and small windows. The experimental investigation consisted of testing 24 rammed earth flexural specimens of densities, 17.66 kN/m3 and 18.64 kN/m3 which were cast by adding 4% cement along with ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) as stabilisers. Natural soil with bamboo bars as reinforcement with and without coir fibres were used in this investigation. Four-point bending was applied on the beam specimen and tested till failure. The findings have shown that stabilised rammed earth (SRE) flexural members with a density of 18.64 kN/m3 reinforced with bamboo bars and coir fibres had a theoretical maximum flexural strength of 0.58 N/mm2 which is less than the experimental flexural strength of 0.73 N/mm2 and hence may be effectively used over small openings.
  Keywords: rammed earth; flexural strength; bamboo reinforcement; coir fiber.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2026.10076779
   
  
• Experimental load tests on full-scale in-situ historical masonry vaults: a design by testing procedure  
  by Fabio De Angelis, Giuseppe Brandonisio, Antonello De Luca 
  Abstract: Masonry vaults of historical buildings often present several critical features such as for instance the antiquity of the historical building, the structural damages occurred during the centuries, the deviations with respect to the original geometrical vault shape, the out-of-plumb of the supporting walls. Full-scale load tests for the assessment of the structural capacity of historical in-situ masonry vaults are not frequently found in literature. In the analysed case the vaults of the historical building are mirror-type vaults, which are known as particularly vulnerable to live loads. The present research work discusses how a design by testing procedure can be adopted to properly evaluate safety of the existing vaults with respect to new increased live loads derived from the transformation of the historical building into a museum and exhibition centre. Such transformation of the destination of the historical building implies that considerably large testing loads must be applied to the structure.
  Keywords: masonry mirror vaults; historical buildings; strengthening interventions; experimental load tests.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2026.10076849
   
  
• Investigation of the effects of high sound level on historical buildings in Erzurum  
  by Dursun Burak Özdoğan, Burak Gedik, Dilek Okuyucu 
  Abstract: Historical buildings represent invaluable components of cultural heritage, necessitating systematic preservation to ensure their longevity and continued cultural relevance. Erzurum, a city with a diverse architectural legacy shaped by various civilisations, hosts numerous historically and architecturally significant mosques. This study investigates the potential structural risks posed by elevated sound levels both environmental and activity-induced on these heritage structures. Sound pressure levels were systematically measured in both inside and outside across 12 historical mosques located in different districts of Erzurum. The results indicate that many of these buildings are exposed to noise levels exceeding the recommended regulatory limit of 55 dBA. Prolonged exposure to such acoustic stressors may accelerate material degradation and adversely affect structural stability. Based on these findings, the study emphasises the urgency of implementing protective and noise mitigation strategies to preserve the structural and cultural integrity of historical buildings under acoustic threat.
  Keywords: historical buildings; sound level; dBA; Erzurum.
  
  

Special Issue on: IB2MaC-2024 Open Challenges in Masonry Modelling and Experimentation

• Advanced modelling strategies for masonry domes: non-linear FEM and limit analysis  
  by Danila Aita, Gabriele Milani, Alberto Taliercio 
  Abstract: This paper presents the results of non-linear finite element analyses carried out using Abaqus CAE software to investigate the collapse behaviour of masonry domes. To consider the material properties, domes are divided into discrete blocks and mortar joints. A concrete damage plasticity model is used to explain the mechanical behaviour of the mortar, with the assumption that failure mostly happens at block interfaces. The FEA take gravitational loads into account, and the collapse load is calculated by applying an increasing vertical displacement at the crown. Furthermore, the resultant deformed shape of the dome and the placement of plastic hinges are established. The FE results are compared with those yielded by specifically developed analytical methods based on the static and kinematic theorems of limit analysis. The applicability of the proposed approach is illustrated with reference to the dome of the Anime Sante church in LAquila, Italy. Additionally, some first insights on the domes collapse response to seismic loads are provided.
  Keywords: FEA; masonry dome; concrete damage plasticity; CDP; limit analysis; collapse load; lower bound; upper bound; mortar joints.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2025.10072381
   
  
• Development of an equivalent truss system for macro modelling of masonry structures  
  by Mahya Rafiee, Atiyeh Mohebbi Amirhoseini, Masoud Soltani 
  Abstract: The aim of this study is to propose a macro-model consisting of a truss system for analyzing masonry members subjected to both in-plane and out-of-plane loads. In the recommended truss system, the geometrical characteristics and materials models are selected so that the macro-model is appropriately able to predict the behavior of members of structures in the entire nonlinear range. Experimental verification in terms of accuracy and applicability of the proposed macro model was conducted by comparing the experimental load-deformation response of masonry members with their numerical analysis under monotonic loads. It is shown that the proposed model can fairly predict the ultimate capacity and initial stiffness of members in a reasonable amount of time.
  Keywords: masonry wall; non-linearity; in-plane failure; modelling; large-scale.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2025.10073512
   
  
• A stochastic approach for the limit analysis of masonry arches with uncertain material properties  
  by Danila Aita, Matteo Bruggi, Elsa Garavaglia 
  Abstract: As is well known, masonry arches’ bearing capacity can be determined by the traditional limit analysis; however, classical approaches fail to sufficiently account for the material’s properties uncertainty. This research starts with classical limit analyses using a method grounded on the multi-constrained equilibrium of a network; subsequently, a straightforward yet efficient technique is proposed for assessing the collapse probability under the assumption of uncertain masonry compression strength when assigned a value for the static imposed live load and for the finite friction. The masonry limited strength is described as a stochastic variable, while the arch is described as a system of voussoirs characterised by an assigned stereotomy. Monte Carlo simulations are conducted by taking into consideration a realistic friction coefficients range, by repeating the funicular procedure while drawing random variable’s samples. Finally, a modified stability area approach is used to investigate the failure mechanisms which can be activated.
  Keywords: finite friction; finite strength; limit analysis; masonry arches; probabilistic analysis; probability of failure.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2026.10076449