International Journal of Masonry Research and Innovation (17 papers in press)

Regular Issues

• Digital image correlation for post-cracking assessment of synthetic fibre-reinforced mortar  
  by Haruna Ibrahim, Hanaa Fares, George Wardeh 
  Abstract: This study investigates the impact of polypropylene short synthetic (SSYN) and long synthetic (LSYN) fibres on the mechanical performance of structural mortars and validates the digital image correlation (DIC) technique for post-cracking assessment. Though precise, traditional strain measurement devices like strain gauges and LVDTs cannot generate strain maps and require meticulous setup. The study used DIC to characterise fracture behaviour in mortars. Three series of mortars were prepared: normal strength mortar (NSM), high strength mortar (HSM), and high strength mortar with Fly Ash (HSFAM), reinforced with Sika force fibres (19 mm and 54 mm) at 0.6% and 1% by volume. Tests examined workability, mechanical properties, and post-cracking properties of 40x40x160 mm prisms at different ages. Results showed increased compressive strength with low fibre addition and significant enhancement in flexural strength. Residual tensile strength and deformation ability were higher at 1% fibre content, with post-cracking behaviour shifting from softening to hardening.
  Keywords: mortar; synthetic fibres; DIC; flexural strength; compressive strength; post-cracking.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2024.10067103
   
  
• A proposed plan for managing construction waste in Syria  
  by Mazen Ibrahim, Ranya Essa, Abdallateif Ahmad Almohammed 
  Abstract: The accumulation of construction waste is one of the most important problems that needs to be solved in cities due to its negative environmental and economic effects. Therefore, the idea of recycling construction waste and reusing recycled products as a substitute for raw materials is the main point of this paper. The process of recycling and managing construction waste is not used significantly in Syria, despite the huge amounts of construction waste generated after the war, earthquakes, and other construction demolitions. Therefore, in this research, a realistic plan for how construction waste is managed through recycling and reusing waste materials at construction sites in Syria was developed. This plan highlighted the points that are applied in the Syrian construction sites and the points that are not implemented in these sites despite their great importance and proposed solutions to obstacles that may be encountered in the work at these sites.
  Keywords: plan; construction waste; recycling; waste management; reusing; Syria.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2024.10066352
   
  
• Using neural networks to predict biological oxygen demand removal in integrated fixed film activated sludge process  
  by Diala Shehab, Heba Aljaddou, Ghassan Durra Al Haddad 
  Abstract: The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) is a necessary parameter for the effective control and monitoring of the wastewater treatment plants , and predicting the removal of BOD5 would eliminate the delay in measuring the BOD5 using laboratory methods. In this paper, the artificial neural networks were used to build a predictive model for BOD5 removal in Integrated fixed film activated sludge process, when pumice stone was used as a biological carrier in the aeration tank in the experimental plant, , the experiments were conducted, by changing the organic loading and the filling ratio of the pumice stone. The model was built based on two parameters which are (organic load rate OLR, pumice filling ratio P). The ideal network architecture was reached after a number of trials and errors (2-90-1), where the root mean squared error (RMSE) value for the best network was (0.665). The value of the correlation coefficient was (99.45%).
  Keywords: sludge; biological carriers; pumice stone; aeration tanks; artificial neural networks; ANNs; BOD5.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2024.10067104
   
  
• Valorisation of demolition and construction wastes rejected over Moroccan cities, contribution to the decarbonation of the country, economic development and resources save  
  by Mourad Morsli, Mohamed Tahiri, Azzeddine Samdi, Rajae Addou 
  Abstract: In Morocco, construction, together with public works, represents the sector that produces inert wastes. In 2015, 14 million tons of demolition and construction wastes were produced (CETEMCO, 2020). Our project is oriented towards recycling and using concrete wastes. We present concrete results in recycling and exploiting this abundant deposit. We used Google E-GIS technology to gather and geolocate the deposit ares of demolition and construction waste. The waste was characterised by FX-ray, while particle size separation was performed by sieving after crushing and grinding. Each obtained fraction was used to develop suitable building materials like coatings and light cement. The materials were tested for flexural and compressive strength, which decreased with increasing demolition waste substitution. It targets to offer cost-effective materials that are environment-friendly for building and construction purposes, as well as for the rehabilitation of quarries and the construction of roads, bridges, and pluvial basins.
  Keywords: demolition and construction waste; recovery and recycling; light cement; decorative gravel; coating; Casablanca; Morocco.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2024.10066864
   
  
• Assessment of mortar and paste properties in the presence of nutrients used in bacteria-based self-healing  
  by Adonay Pinto, Belén González-Fonteboa, Sindy Seara-Paz, Fernando Martínez-Abella 
  Abstract: Small cracks in cement-based materials represent one of their primary weak points. To address this, self-sealing techniques have emerged, being one of them the use of bacteria and nutrients. The objective of this work is to analyse the effect that these nutrients have on the properties of mortars and pastes. To achieve this, yeast extract, calcium lactate and calcium nitrate were selected. For mortar characterization, compressive strength, and shrinkage tests were developed. These tests were complemented with rheological tests Stress Growth Test and Flow Curve Test in pastes. The results demonstrate how the incorporation of these nutrients alters the properties of mortars and pastes, such as the decrease of almost 50% in early age strengths when yeast extract is used at 1.25%, the significant increase in shrinkage when lactate is employed at 4% by up to 81%, or the increase in fluidity when nitrate is used, among others.
  Keywords: self-healing; yeast-extract; calcium-lactate; calcium-nitrate; mortar; paste.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2024.10067054
   
  
• The effect of lateral force distribution patterns on the behaviour of RC frame buildings  
  by Abak Badran, Fadwa Issa, Bassam Hwaiji 
  Abstract: The lateral force distribution pattern (LFDP) used in the seismic design of RC buildings is one of the most important factors influencing the design results. This pattern may lead to large inelastic deformations as it may not represent the real response during exposure to earthquakes, which makes the building behave unexpectedly during the nonlinear stage. This study was conducted to investigate the effect of six lateral force distribution patterns (taken from seismic codes and the literature) on the nonlinear behaviour of three-dimensional concrete frames designed according to the Syrian Arab Code. The study utilised nonlinear static and dynamic analyses using three seismic records [El-Centro (1940), Kobe (1995) and Northridge (1994)] scaled to several intensities (0.25 g, 0.3 g and 0.35 g). The results demonstrated that the code patterns produced satisfactory results for drift ratios and damage during designed earthquakes. However, as the degree of nonlinearity increased, some of the proposed patterns exhibited more uniform distributions of damage and drift ratio compared to the code patterns.
  Keywords: lateral force distribution pattern; seismic design; nonlinear static analysis; nonlinear dynamic analysis.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2024.10067144
   
  
• Seismic performance evaluation and SWOT analysis of retrofitted reinforced concrete building  
  by Ayed Eid Alluqmani, Muhammad Tayyab Naqash, A. B. M. Saiful Islam 
  Abstract: The Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia was previously considered seismically inactive, but the recent earthquake in the Jeddah region has raised concerns. Therefore, the safety of the holy cities (Madinah and Makkah) must incorporate seismic effects in design. This research focuses on the performance of multi-story office buildings under lateral loads in the Madinah region. Furthermore, the SWOT (strength, weakness, opportunities, threats) analysis has been carried out to pinpoint the detailed scenario of the retrofitting ideology. The study showed that retrofitting systems can highly increase the lateral strength of the existing structures. It has been proved that a non earthquake-resistant building can be transferred to an earthquake-resistant facility by following solutions with a level arrangement. The mechanism appears to increase the lateral strength resistance of the seismically vulnerable building. The bracing system exhibits the highest increase in strength. Such retrofitting approaches demonstrate their potential to be applied to vulnerable structures.
  Keywords: retrofitting mechanism; earthquake resistance; lateral loads; seismic performance; SWOT analysis.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2025.10068727
   
  
• Roots of failure of cultural heritage structures induced by the 2023 Kahramanmaras earthquakes  
  by Enes Arkan, Mustafa Topalan, Gabriele Milani, Ercan Işık, Fatih Avcil, Aydın Büyüksaraç, Rabia İzol, Musa Hakan Arslan, Mine Topçubaşı, Emine Dağtekin, Hatice Derya Arslan 
  Abstract: The earthquakes in Turkiye on February 6, 2023, resulted in devastating losses, impacting approximately 14% of the countrys population and causing severe structural damage to historic buildings. This study focuses on the historical structures in Hatay, Adyaman, and Kahramanmaras, with particular attention to Sanlurfa, home to some of humanitys oldest monumental sites. These buildings, primarily constructed using masonry techniques, experienced varying degrees of damage from the earthquakes. Some structures suffered partial collapse, while others total collapse. The study includes a comparative examination of selected buildings in the affected area, assessing their condition before and after the earthquakes. It explores the cause and-effect relationships regarding the damages observed and offers recommendations for future preservation and resilience. Additionally, the research provides detailed historical context for the examined structures, highlighting their significance and the impact of the earthquakes on their integrity and heritage.
  Keywords: Kahramanmaras earthquakes; cultural heritage; historical building; structural damage; masonry structure.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2025.10069200
   
  
• A polyhedral approximation of the yield domain for masonry sections  
  by Filomena Galizia, Alberto Fiorenza, Carlalberto Anselmi, Enrico Babilio 
  Abstract: In this paper, the problem of approximating the yield domain of a generic masonry section subjected to a compressive normal force is addressed. The masonry is modelled as a no-tension material with limited strength in compression and the actual yield domain is a surface described by nonlinear functions dependent on the normal force and bending moments. A suitable polyhedral approximation of such a domain is proposed. Since the goal is its use in limit analysis, to assess the practical applicability of the polyhedral domain, the multiplier of collapse loads is estimated for an elementary case study under different loading conditions.
  Keywords: approximated yield surface; limit analysis; no-tension masonry; limited compressive strength; eccentric normal force.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2025.10069955
   
  
• Thermal properties of earth bricks: a review from 2010 until 2020  
  by Noreriyawaty Binti Mat Rani, Badorul Hisham Bin Abu Bakar, Hussin Bin Mamat 
  Abstract: This paper reviews the thermal properties of earth bricks, specifically examining research conducted between 2010 and 2020. The study focuses on key thermal properties, including thermal conductivity, resistance, diffusivity, effusivity, and transmittance, while also exploring the effects of additives on these properties. Findings from multiple studies are summarised, showcasing the performance of earth bricks across parameters like density, water absorption, and specific heat. The review highlights the promising thermal properties of earth bricks, making them suitable for sustainable building applications. However, it also identifies significant variations in thermal performance across different studies, primarily due to variations in soil type, additives used, and manufacturing processes. The paper concludes with suggestions for future research, emphasising the need for broader material performance metrics, the development of multi-functional earth bricks, the integration of computational models, comparisons with other sustainable materials, and the standardisation of testing protocols.
  Keywords: earth bricks; thermal properties; density; specific heat; water absorption; thermal conductivity; thermal resistance; thermal diffusivity; thermal effusivity; thermal transmittance.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2025.10071075
   
  
• Experimental study on reuse of construction and demolition waste as fine aggregate in mortar  
  by Tinu Lusi, Sudisht Mishra 
  Abstract: The construction and demolition (C&D) waste is not easily disposed of. The manuscript is an effort to reuse such waste as recycled aggregate and lower the burden on quarry sites of natural aggregate. The research problem is the insufficient data in the region of study, which is the use of construction waste in mortar application. Numerous works are reusing C&D waste as a recycled coarse aggregate in concrete; however, studies on reusing such waste as fine recycled aggregate in mortar production are limited. The people of the region are unaware of the benefits of reusing construction waste. It was found feasible to reuse C&D waste as recycled fine aggregate in mortar as a partial replacement for sand. The experimental study found 35% of replacement by weight as the optimum % of replacement of sand with C&D waste recycled aggregate.
  Keywords: reuse; recycled aggregate; fine aggregates; mortar; construction and demolition waste; CDW.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2025.10071661
   
  
• Experimental characterisation of physical, thermal, transport and mechanical properties of 13 French limestones  
  by Ayoub Daoudi, Francesca Sciarretta, Javad Eslami, Anne-Lise Beaucour, Albert Noumowé 
  Abstract: The paper presents microstructural, physical, thermal, water transport and mechanical tests on 13 types of limestones from France. In comparison to literature information, the investigated limestones are mainly more porous and less strong. The 95% intervals of confidence for the mechanical and physical properties enlighten that the stones of medium-high density show the highest variability in results. A principal component analysis (PCA) has been performed to identify groups of stones with similar behaviours, based on the density and porosity variations, but with a remarkable influence of peak pore radius. Nonlinear equations express the compressive strength, indirect tensile strength, P-wave velocity, capillary water absorption, thermal conductivity and diffusivity of the limestones as functions of the porosity. Such relations enlighten the need to take into account the influence of microstructural characteristics especially texture and pore size distribution on the limestones macroscopic properties.
  Keywords: limestone; France; POSTFIRE; material characterisation; microstructure; compressive strength; indirect tensile strength; P-wave velocity; capillary water absorption; thermal properties.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2025.10073377
   
  
• Development of a model to measure and improve the maturity of building information modelling in engineering colleges in Syrian universities  
  by Lama Saoud 
  Abstract: The need to integrate BIM with education has increased recently to meet the labour market. Many international studies have provided BIM maturity models for companies, organisations, and individuals, but there is a great lack of BIM maturity models for higher engineering education institutions. The research is concerned with the development of a BIM maturity matrix model to measure and improve the maturity of BIM in the faculties of civil and architectural engineering. The model relies on selecting the most appropriate criteria for evaluating the maturity of BIM and defining several levels of maturity, based on interviews with stakeholders in engineering colleges and companies. The developed maturity model includes three domains; technology, processes and policies. It measures maturity against 26 criteria. This model introduces a framework for adopting BIM in Syrian colleges. The model was fed with data collected from 26 engineering colleges in Syrian private and public universities. The maturity model was analysed to obtain a general assessment and description of the maturity of engineering colleges in Syria, and then the maturity degree of the criteria was analysed, which indicated the strengths and weaknesses of adopting BIM in engineering education in Syrian universities.
  Keywords: engineering education; BIM maturity; adopting BIM; BIM challenges.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2025.10073510
   
  
• Improvement of construction waste management by waste reduction in the design phase using BIM  
  by Mohamed H. Shaban, Hassan Mohammad Ali 
  Abstract: The building construction industry is one of the most important contributors to waste production globally; therefore, researchers efforts focused on reducing construction waste CW. Design is a crucial stage in the formation of construction waste by determining the sizes and dimensions of building elements, items, and the resulting formation of some remaining/unused materials or resources. The research aims to develop a method to reduce construction waste using Building Information Modelling (BIM) techniques in the design and implementation phases. The developed methodology showed the possibility of reducing floor finishing waste by an average of 92% of the waste in previous conventional methods, using Dynamo visual programming. This model helps to develop the concept of worker-oriented implementation in carrying out activities based on the results of waste that will appear in each part of the building during the design phase, which saves the project cost as a result of reducing waste.
  Keywords: building information modelling; waste reduction; construction waste reduces by BIM; visual programming; waste generation factors; waste reduction factors.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2026.10074568
   
  
• Influence of dowel bars on the out-of-plane behaviour of masonry walls under earthquake loads  
  by Wanchai Yodsudjai, Nattapong Paewchompoo, Satja Jantharaksa, Thanatorn Chantharatreerat, Preaw Poomchodchuang, Thanyaporn Yakhasem 
  Abstract: This study tested three materials (clay brick, concrete block and lightweight concrete block) consisting of a wall without a dowel bar, with dowel bar spacing of 200 mm, 400 mm and 600 mm. The experiment collected data on maximum load, wall deflection and strain in the dowel bars. Moreover, a single-storey building from construction plan no. 7 issued by the Department of Public Works and Town & Country Planning, Thailand, along with simulations of walls in the laboratory, were modelled with SAP2000 to analyse and compare the results of maximum stress and maximum load of the structure. As a result, it was found that the bearing capacity of the walls with dowel bars was higher than those of the walls without dowel bars. In addition, the failure pattern of the walls with dowel bars was different from those without any dowel bars.
  Keywords: masonry wall; dowel bar; out-of-plane load.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2025.10075136
   
  

Special Issue on: IB2MaC-2024 Open Challenges in Masonry Modelling and Experimentation

• Advanced modelling strategies for masonry domes: non-linear FEM and limit analysis  
  by Danila Aita, Gabriele Milani, Alberto Taliercio 
  Abstract: This paper presents the results of non-linear finite element analyses carried out using Abaqus CAE software to investigate the collapse behaviour of masonry domes. To consider the material properties, domes are divided into discrete blocks and mortar joints. A concrete damage plasticity model is used to explain the mechanical behaviour of the mortar, with the assumption that failure mostly happens at block interfaces. The FEA take gravitational loads into account, and the collapse load is calculated by applying an increasing vertical displacement at the crown. Furthermore, the resultant deformed shape of the dome and the placement of plastic hinges are established. The FE results are compared with those yielded by specifically developed analytical methods based on the static and kinematic theorems of limit analysis. The applicability of the proposed approach is illustrated with reference to the dome of the Anime Sante church in LAquila, Italy. Additionally, some first insights on the domes collapse response to seismic loads are provided.
  Keywords: FEA; masonry dome; concrete damage plasticity; CDP; limit analysis; collapse load; lower bound; upper bound; mortar joints.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2025.10072381
   
  
• Development of an equivalent truss system for macro modelling of masonry structures  
  by Mahya Rafiee, Atiyeh Mohebbi Amirhoseini, Masoud Soltani 
  Abstract: The aim of this study is to propose a macro-model consisting of a truss system for analyzing masonry members subjected to both in-plane and out-of-plane loads. In the recommended truss system, the geometrical characteristics and materials models are selected so that the macro-model is appropriately able to predict the behavior of members of structures in the entire nonlinear range. Experimental verification in terms of accuracy and applicability of the proposed macro model was conducted by comparing the experimental load-deformation response of masonry members with their numerical analysis under monotonic loads. It is shown that the proposed model can fairly predict the ultimate capacity and initial stiffness of members in a reasonable amount of time.
  Keywords: masonry wall; non-linearity; in-plane failure; modelling; large-scale.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2025.10073512