International Journal of Heavy Vehicle Systems (25 papers in press)

Regular Issues

• Traffic anomaly detection with wild geese dwarf mongoose optimisation_DQNN  
  by M. Ahsan Shariff, C. Nelson Kennedy Babu 
  Abstract: SDN probe focuses more programmability and growth of control plane from starting. SDN is affected tremendously by DDoS attacks as SDN controller is a main portion that controls and manages all actions of network. Thus, controller breakage may direct to network collapse. Here, WGDMO_DQNN is devised for traffic flow detection in SDN. Firstly, SDN is simulated and then, packet transmission is conducted. Thereafter, traffic flow detection at data plane is conducted wherein feature extraction and traffic flow detection stages are carried out. The traffic flow detection is accomplished utilizing DQNN. If traffic flow is detected at individual switch, then control plane attack mechanism is done that consists of identifying, electing and composition stages. In composition stage, WGDMO is employed for swapping switches to underloaded controller. Moreover, WGDMO is an amalgamation of optimizations such as WGA with DMOA.
  Keywords: DQNN; deep quantum neural network; WGA; wild geese algorithm; DMOA; dwarf mongoose optimisation algorithm; SDN; software-defined networking; packet transmission.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJHVS.2024.10069794
   
  
• A wheel polygon recognition model based on improved statistical geometric feature and support vector machine  
  by Chengdong Wu, Huiming Yao 
  Abstract: Addressing the problems of long processing time, low accuracy and poor real-time performance in wheel polygon recognition, a new recognition model is proposed. The vertical vibration data of the axle box is converted from 1D to 2D and normalized into gray degree images. Subsequently, the gray degree image is decomposed into binary images through bit plane decomposition, and an improved statistical geometric feature (ISGF) method is utilized to extract textural features from the binary image. Finally, these features are used for the training and classification process of support vector machine (SVM) to diagnose and recognize wheel polygon faults. Through dynamics simulation verification and double-wheel test bench experiments, the results show that the model organically combines the fault data with the image recognition method, effectively restrains the noise interference in vibration data, and significantly improves the recognition accuracy, reduces recognition time and demonstrates strong generalization performance.
  Keywords: Wheel polygon; Gray degree image; Improved statistical geometric feature; Texture analysis; Support vector machine.
  
  
• Energy consumption and makespan by considering set up and transportation time: a hybrid AHO-MARR technique  
  by Kilari Jyothi, R.B. Dubey 
  Abstract: The job shop scheduling problem (JSP) with sequence-dependent set-up and transportation times is addressed using a hybrid approach in this manuscript. Using the median-average round robin (MARR) scheduling method and the archerfish hunting optimizer (AHO),the procedure is carried out. As a result, it is called the AHO-MARR technique. The energy-efficient JSP is analyzed in relation to the requirements of manufacturing, and the effects of the two times factors-namely, setup and transportation times-on the production and energy objectives are looked at. High-quality initial solutions are being produced by the intended AHO population.AHO is used to calculate the total processing time and energy used by every job on each machine. AHO method depends on the critical-path is intended to reduce the overall setup time while maintaining the machine assignment system. When compared to existing methods like the Salp swarm algorithm(SSA), Wild horse optimizer(WHO),& heap-based optimizer(HBO), the AHO-MARR is lower.
  Keywords: energy consumption; setup; transportation time; makespan; efficient; job shop scheduling; archer fish hunting optimisation; median average round robin algorithm.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJHVS.2025.10071177
   
  
• Path tracking and stability control of articulated vehicle based on multi-point preview  
  by Xu Li, Hongzheng Song, Jianchun Wang 
  Abstract: To address the issue of poor path tracking accuracy and vehicle stability of automated articulated vehicle under emergency track changing conditions, a speed-based variable weight multi-point preview path tracking, stability decision making and optimal control strategy is proposed. Considering the dual effects of vehicle speed on preview deviation and the articulated relationship between tractor and semi-trailer on the trajectory, a three-point preview driver model based on the adaptive weight of vehicle speed is designed. The phase plane method and lateral load transfer ratio are used to determine the articulated vehicle’s stability.A direct yaw moment by differential braking stability control strategy for articulated vehicle based on model predictive control (MPC) is designed to reduce the yaw rate, mass center side slip angle and lateral load transfer ratio of tractor as well as semi-trailer during the path tracking of articulated vehicle to improve the vehicle running stability.
  Keywords: articulated vehicle; three-point preview; MPC; path tracking; stability control.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJHVS.2025.10071269
   
  
• AAM-YOLO: a novel articulated angle observer of towbarless aircraft towing systems  
  by Hengjia Zhu, Zishuo Xu, Chao Wang, JiYuan Liu, Wei Zhang 
  Abstract: The measurement of the articulated angle is the key to achieving the automated towing operation of the towbarless aircraft towing system (TLATS). Due to the structural characteristics of the towing system, it is challenging to measure the articulated angle accurately using contact methods or dynamic models. To tackle these problems, this article proposes a novel observer called articulated angle measured YOLO (AAM-YOLO), which features a plug-and-play articulated angle measured module (AAM). This module uses the segmentation mask generated by the output to determine the articulated angle of the TLATS. The effectiveness of the AAM-YOLO is validated on a self-built AN-SEG dataset. The validation results show that the absolute errors of the measured results are all less than 1.5
  Keywords: TLATS; towbarless aircraft towing vehicles; articulated angle measurement; state estimation; YOLO.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJHVS.2025.10071582
   
  
• Enhancing roll and lateral stability of a 3-axle heavy vehicle through ARC and AFS control  
  by Erfan Sabzalian, Mahyar Naraghi, Maryam Ghassabzadeh Saryazdi 
  Abstract: Ensuring the stability of heavy-duty trucks is crucial to prevent accidents, as their high center of gravity makes them prone to rollovers Alongside lateral stability, roll stability is a critical control parameter, and this paper proposes a strategy that uses two subsystems to simultaneously control the vehicle's roll angle and yaw rate The active roll subsystem employs a Fuzzy-PD controller to generate the desired torque, while the active front steering subsystem uses a sliding mode controller to track the desired yaw rate To test the effectiveness of the proposed strategy, simulations are carried out using a full TruckSim model as a simulation model The controller model consists of a 2-DOF 3-axle generalized bicycle model and a 1-DOF roll model For instance, the simulation results in the J-Turn and Sine maneuver illustrate that the proposed strategy enhances the vehicle's stable speed range by up to 32 8%, particularly when the two subsystems operate simultaneously.
  Keywords: active front steering; active roll; roll stability; 3-axle heavy vehicle.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJHVS.2025.10071652
   
  
• Nonlinear parametric modelling of road traffic processes on large networks.  
  by Tamás Péter 
  Abstract: The investigation and modelling of traffic processes in large-scale road networks is a priority task. A key task is the investigation and modelling of traffic processes in large road networks. Its role is also highlighted due to its economic, social, traffic safety and environmental significance. This is indeed a very complex research and practical task. The research topic is also important because of the environmental changes affecting vehicles participating in traffic, which have an impact on road traffic processes and their regulation. The modelling of large-scale transport networks and their processes is accompanied by numerous challenges, which require special attention and experience in all aspects. In this publication, we deal with parameter analysis related to velocity processes along trajectory.
  Keywords: roads; nonlinear networks; road characteristics; trajectories; speed processes; parametric analysis.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJHVS.2025.10071716
   
  
• Assessing road vulnerability using heavy goods vehicles and microsimulation-based analysis  
  by Bora Dogaroglu, S.Pelin Caliskanelli 
  Abstract: Road network sustainability depends on resilience and vulnerability. In this study, a new approach that considers Heavy Goods Vehicles (HGV) has been proposed to determine the vulnerability index of road networks. Methods for determining capacity and flow values based on the percentage of HGVs were suggested using a microsimulation. Additionally, a novel approach for vulnerability assessment that considers HGV is proposed. The proposed vulnerability assessment method was applied to a case study in which a road network in the New York region was selected to compare the proposed vulnerability index with an existing index from the literature. The results indicate that the proposed model achieves an increment correction of up to 57.89% in vulnerability values of the links when compared to literature index results. Across the entire network, this average correction is approximately 23.27%. Additionally, the proposed model demonstrates a stronger correlation with the HGV ratio than in the literature.
  Keywords: resilience assessment; road network vulnerability; microsimulation; HGV; heavy good vehicle; disaster sustainability.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJHVS.2025.10072318
   
  
• A comprehensive review on deep learning based adaptive methods for obstacle detection in autonomous ground vehicles using sensor fusion  
  by Abhishek Thakur, Sudhansu Kumar Mishra 
  Abstract: Obstacle avoidance in Autonomous Ground Vehicles (AGVs) is vital for safe and efficient navigation. This review explores various strategies, focusing on the integration of multiple sensors and advanced methodologies like machine learning, reinforcement learning, and game theory. Traditional methods such as Potential Field Methods, Vector Field Histogram (VFH), and Dynamic Window Approach (DWA) form the foundation but have limitations in complex scenarios. Multi-sensor fusion, using data from LiDAR, RADAR, cameras, and ultrasonic sensors, enhances environmental perception and obstacle detection. Advanced techniques improve classification, navigation, and decision-making. The review highlights recent advancements, challenges, and future research directions, emphasizing computational efficiency, robustness, and ethical considerations. Integrating these approaches is crucial for developing safer, more efficient, and reliable AGV systems.
  Keywords: obstacle avoidance; AGV; autonomous ground vehicle; game theory; DWA; dynamic window approach; deep learning; multi sensor fusion.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJHVS.2025.10072587
   
  
• Tyre modelling influence on Performance Base Standard (PBS) performance  
  by Tokologo Komana, Schalk Els, Carl Martin Becker 
  Abstract: Initially Performance Base Standard (PBS) required that assessments are conducted with models of the actual tyres the vehicle will operate with. This led to practical difficulties for both assessors and operators. Assessors found it difficult to source accurate tyre experimental data and operators found restricting the vehicle to a set of tyres negatively affects their business case. The PBS tyre review resolved that all PBS assessment must be conducted with this generic tyre, thus tyre is treated as a test condition rather than a model parameter. While this resolution is pragmatic for both operators and assessors, cornering stiffness is known to significantly influence vehicle handling. So, this study investigates the influence of corning stiffness on PBS performance. Results show that tyres with low cornering stiffnesses significantly influence the PBS performance ranging between level 1-4. Tyres with a high cornering stiffness do not significantly influence the PBS performance of heavy vehicles.
  Keywords: Performance Base Standard (PBS); cornering stiffness; Pacejka tyre model; Rearward Amplification (RA); High Speed Transient Offtracking (HSTO); Yaw Damping Coefficient (YDC).
  
  
• MMR-CNN and improved LSTM based detection of objects for autonomous driving  
  by R. Yogitha, G. Mathivanan 
  Abstract: In recent years, many tasks related to autonomous driving, including as object recognition and intention identification, have been explained separately using different approaches. This paper suggested segmentation based on MMR-CNN and an enhanced LSTM dependent object recognition model for autonomous driving. Initially, the input image is assumed to have undergone preprocessing to transform it from RGB to grayscale. In order to enhance the segmentation technique in the grayscale image, the preprocessed image is then segmented using a modified Mask RCNN. Here, vanishing gradient issues are resolved with the hybrid activation function LELU. Consequently, the result of the segmentation procedure is mask, category, and coordinates. The segmented image is then utilized to extract features, including enhanced multi-texton, shape, color, and deep features. Finally, the enhanced LSTM detection simulation obtains the full feature set needed to correctly identify objects for autonomous driving.
  Keywords: improved LSTM; modified mask RCNN; improved multi-texton; object detection; segmentation; multi-texton; long short term memory; simulation; recognition.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJHVS.2025.10074106
   
  
• The effect of piston pin offset on piston friction in heavy vehicle compressors: a comparative FEA study of conventional and new crank-connecting rod mechanisms  
  by Ozgur Cetin, Melih Okur 
  Abstract: In crank-connecting rod mechanisms, a major portion of mechanical losses results from piston-cylinder friction, primarily caused by the piston’s secondary motion. One of the most influential parameters affecting this motion is the piston pin offset. This study introduces a novel crank-connecting rod mechanism with reduced lateral thrust as an alternative to the conventional design. The effects of various pin offsets on lateral piston forces were analyzed using 3D finite element analysis. A two-stage air brake compressor model, commonly used in heavy-duty vehicles, was employed along with thermodynamic assumptions. Results showed that offsets applied toward the anti-thrust side reduced lateral forces in both systems. At -3 mm offset, the novel mechanism produced 81% less friction compared to the conventional one. It was also concluded that to avoid eccentric friction caused by piston moments, the pin offset should be kept within a limited range.
  Keywords: heavy vehicle compressor; secondary movement of piston; piston pin offset; piston friction; FEA; finite element analysis.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJHVS.2025.10074970
   
  
• Research on following braking control of the aircraft engine-off taxi towing system  
  by Kai Qi, Juanjuan Wei 
  Abstract: In traditional aircraft towing, only the towbarless towing vehicle (TLTV) provides braking, which poses risks at higher speeds due to the aircraft's large inertia. The new-generation aircraft engine-off taxi towing system (AEOTTS) eliminates the need for a TLTV driver, allowing the pilot alone to control braking. In this mode, the TLTV follows the aircraft based on force and motion signals from the nose wheel. During braking, the combined effort from both the aircraft and the TLTV shortens the braking distance and keeps the nose landing gear (NLG) load within a safe limit. A coupled vertical-longitudinal model was developed, along with a validated tire dynamics model. A fuzzy PID slip rate controller was designed for following braking. Co-simulations in Adams/View and Matlab/Simulink demonstrated that this strategy significantly reduces both braking distance and peak NLG load, enhancing towing safety.
  Keywords: AEOTTS; aircraft engine-off taxi towing system; TLTV; towbarless towing vehicle; braking dynamic; slip rate control.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJHVS.2025.10075065
   
  
• An approach to optimizing wedge angles of heavy haul draft gears based on vehicle shunting impacts  
  by Liangliang Yang, Maohai Fu, Yuxing Bai, Xiaocui Huang, Chen Wang 
  Abstract: An approach integrating draft gear analytical models, vehicle shunting simulations and Genetic Algorithms was presented to optimize wedge angles of heavy haul draft gears for railway freight cars. Considering the fullness coefficient as the objective, two optimization schemes were proposed, simulated and discussed. The primary optimization scheme (POS) is only for the ideal service state of newly built draft gears, and the advanced optimization scheme (AOS) involves various service states of worn draft gears. The results indicate that the POS can bring more excellent performance than the original scheme for new draft gears, but its improvement for worn draft gears is unsatisfactory. The AOS can achieve good performance for both new and worn draft gears, ensuring that non-worn or half-worn draft gears can adapt to the impact velocity of 9km/h and that full-worn draft gears can also fit in with the impact velocity of 8km/h.
  Keywords: heavy haul; draft gear design; wedge angle; optimization; vehicle shunting impact.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJHVS.2025.10075066
   
  
• Reconfigurable multi-unit, multi-axle, multi-articulation heavy vehicle (RUAAHV) driver modelling for PBS assessments  
  by Tokologo Komana, Schalk Els, Herman A. Hamersma 
  Abstract: Performance Based Standards (PBS) is a new paradigm in heavy vehicle regulation based on the vehicle’s safety performance, rather than on the vehicle’s physical attributes such as dimensions and mass. Commonly, PBS assessments through simulations are preferred, because field testing is more costly and poses a safety risk to the test engineers and equipment. Assessing PBS performance through simulation requires a robust driver model to steer the simulation model to perform the different PBS manoeuvres. This study develops a reconfigurable driver model in Simulink to steer an Adams vehicle model through co-simulation. Results show that the driver modelling approach achieves the PBS path following error requirements of 0.05 m and 0.03 m for low speed and high speed manoeuvres, respectively. The reconfigurable approach makes the driver model adaptable to various vehicle configurations (five different vehicles are simulated in this study) and various speeds (5-90 km/h).
  Keywords: heavy vehicle; PBS; performance based standards; LQR; linear quadratic regulator; Kalman filter (KF); driver model; B-double; truck/trailer; Adams view.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJHVS.2025.10075112
   
  
• Electric powertrain sizing for light cargo vehicles in developing markets  
  by Sriniket Chavan, Satyajit Patil 
  Abstract: Tailpipe emissions from automobiles are one of the significant sources of air pollution, harming the environment. While electric vehicles are known for environmental friendliness, their penetration in cargo transportation is still questionable; thus, it is proposed to electrify the powertrain of a typical cargo vehicle. The battery capacity and electric motor rating are the critical decisions for an electric powertrain. These influence vehicle performance regarding range, top speed, and acceleration. This work presents a methodology to develop an electric powertrain using a modelling and simulation approach. The analytical approach estimated the battery sizing and motor rating, while the simulation studies validated the estimation for the FTP 75 drive cycle. The simulation results indicate a battery capacity of 96 kWh with a motor rating of 30 kW to meet the performance demands of the cargo vehicle. The results could serve as benchmark sizing for further electrification development projects.
  Keywords: electric vehicles; emission; modelling; simulation; battery sizing; electric powertrain.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJHVS.2025.10075195
   
  
• Nonlinear vibrations study of truck seat-cab suspension system  
  by Changcheng Yin, Yunfei Zhang, Hui Yuan, Demin Luo 
  Abstract: A four-degree-of-freedom nonlinear seat-cab suspension system was established by testing the mechanical properties of the air springs and fitting the test data with a cubic polynomial. On this basis, the whole-vehicle road sampling test technique and the bench load replication iteration technique was utilized to obtain the excitation signals of a Belgian road and general highway. Then, the vibration responses of the two road surfaces were investigated based on random vibration theory. The human vibration comfort evaluation was carried out using Chinese standards. Subsequently, the linear parameters of the suspension system were optimized and matched according to the design requirements of the suspension system using the multi-island genetic algorithm in Isight. Finally, the smoothness of the suspension system before and after optimization was simulated and verified. The results show that the new suspension system has better vibration isolation performance and greatly improves the comfort.
  Keywords: suspension system; random excitation; weighted acceleration; Multi-island genetic algorithm; optimize the matching.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJHVS.2024.10075457
   
  
• Research on vehicle dynamic weighing method based on narrow strip strain sensor  
  by Zicheng Qi, Jianyun Shen, Xuyang Xu, Ruolan Wang 
  Abstract: To address dynamic weighing errors in vehicles caused by speed variations and uneven road surfaces, a novel approach combines trapezoidal-normal distribution convolution modeling with dual vertical narrow-strip sensor arrays. This layout minimizes road-induced fluctuations, while a ladder function simulates driving state changes (acceleration/deceleration, grounding length). A normal distribution-based transfer function characterizes sensor dynamics. Comparative tests demonstrate superior accuracy (0.78% average error) and stability versus traditional averaging methods. The system maintains precision across speeds and axle counts, enabling reliable freight vehicle weighing with enhanced robustness to operational variables. This integration of mathematical modelling and optimised sensor placement provides an effective solution to resolve uncertainties in dynamic weighing under real-world scenarios.
  Keywords: normally distributed response function; narrow strip sensor; dynamic weighing; tire pressure model.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJHVS.2025.10075460
   
  
• Modelling and validation of the lateral dynamics of multi-trailer articulated heavy vehicles for active safety systems design and optimisation  
  by Shenjin Zhu, Yuping He 
  Abstract: Active safety systems (ASSs) are promising in enhancing the lateral dynamics of multi-trailer articulated heavy vehicles (MTAHVs). One essential technique for ASS development is model-based controller design, which can predict and control the lateral dynamics of MTAHVs under various operating conditions. To discuss the modelling of MTAHVs, an overview of state-of-theart techniques for tyre and vehicle modelling is presented. An MTAHV with the configuration of B-train double is selected for this study. To design, coordinate and optimise conventional ASSs for MTAHVs, four typical models, i.e., linear yaw-plane, linear yaw-roll, 2-Dimensional (2D) nonlinear double-track, and 3-dimensional (3D) nonlinear EoM, are derived and validated using a 3D nonlinear TruckSim model. According to their complexities and predicting capabilities evaluated in simulations under low and high lateral acceleration operations, these models are recommended for respective applications to ASS designs.
  Keywords: multi-trailer articulated heavy vehicles; active safety systems; linear yaw-plane model; linear yaw-roll model; nonlinear yaw-plane model; nonlinear EoM yaw-roll model; TruckSim model; model allocatio.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJHVS.2025.10076144
   
  
• Modelling of rolling resistance of agricultural tyre based on machine learning algorithms  
  by Ergün Çıtıl, Kazım Çarman, Alper Taner 
  Abstract: Axle loads on tractor tyres increase proportionally with tractor power, making rolling resistance an performance parameter. This study investigates the rolling resistance of tractor drive tyres under controlled conditions using a single-wheel test rig in a soil chamber and evaluates five machine learning models. Experiments were conducted at vertical loads of 3.56.5 kN, tyre inflation pressures of 150240 kPa, and a constant speed of 0.45 m/s. Results showed that increasing inflation pressure reduced the tyre soil contact area, whereas higher vertical loads enlarged it. Rolling resistance ranged from 240 N to 3170 N and showed strong correlations with both vertical load and tyre inflation pressure. Support vector regression, multi-layer perceptron regressor, extreme gradient boosting regressor, k-nearest neighbours regressor, and random forest regressor were used for prediction. Among these models, the multi-layer perceptron regressor achieved the best performance, with a mean absolute percentage error of 7.66% and a correlation coefficient of 0.98.
  Keywords: agricultural tyre; machine learning algorithms; rolling resistance; tyre inflation pressure; tyre contact surface area.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJHVS.2025.10076145
   
  
• Study on lane changing trajectory planning and tracking control of semitrailers based on multi-objective optimisation  
  by Xingkun Li, Aihong Meng, Yawei Li, Yushuai Zhao, Guangyu Tian, Charles A. Garris 
  Abstract: With the rapid advancement of autonomous driving, intelligent semitrailers present significant development opportunities but also unique challenges, including large frontrear wheel track differences during turning, significant load-dependent mass variation, and high sensitivity to fuel economy. In this study, a six-axle, three-degree-of-freedom dynamic model of a semitrailer is established, and an engine fuel consumption model is developed through hardware-in-the-loop testing. A multi-objective lane-changing trajectory optimisation method based on a fifth-order polynomial and genetic algorithm is proposed, considering lane-changing efficiency, comfort, and fuel economy. An integrated lateral controller combining LQR, single-point preview, and feedforward control is designed to track the optimised trajectory and speed. Co-simulation results using TruckSim and Simulink demonstrate that incorporating fuel economy into trajectory planning improves safety, stability, and fuel efficiency, highlighting its significance for commercial vehicles.
  Keywords: semitrailer; trajectory planning; tracking control; genetic algorithm; fuel economy.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJHVS.2025.10076146
   
  
• Design of dynamic zero position for single-pedal motor torque considering driver braking habits  
  by Xuhao Zhang, Yufang Li, Yuhang Wang, Jihang Li, Siyu Xu, Dexin Gao, Tianci Zhang 
  Abstract: Single-pedal control relies on defining the mapping between pedal position and motor zero torque output. The zero torque point determines the pedals drive/brake threshold, and its speed-dependent curve, known as the zero torque line, critically affects vehicle performance. Existing systems use fixed zero torque lines to separate drive and brake torque for energy recovery, yet they cannot simultaneously optimise energy recovery and acceleration response. To resolve this trade-off, this paper introduces a dynamic zero torque position strategy. The proposed method adjusts the zero torque point in real time, maintaining high energy recovery efficiency while preserving driving comfort. Simulations under urban conditions demonstrate that the dynamic scheme outperforms conventional fixed-line approaches in both adaptability and total energy recovered.
  Keywords: single-pedal control technology; pedal position; motor zero-torque; energy recovery; urban driving conditions.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJHVS.2025.10076253
   
  
• Development and verification of an adaptive ECMS incorporating efficiency factors for autonomous driving range-extended hybrid mining trucks  
  by Tao Li, Zhao Zhiguo, Huiyong Chen, Jianyu Yang, Peihong Shen 
  Abstract: Considering that range-extended hybrid mining trucks cannot be externally charged during operation, this paper proposes an Adaptive Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (A-ECMS) incorporating efficiency factors. Firstly, a reference SOC trajectory planning method based on Dynamic Programming (DP) was designed. The operation was divided into four modes based on load status and SOC.Secondly, an ECMS control strategy incorporating efficiency factors is proposed to quantify the efficiency loss of battery charging and discharging. Genetic Algorithm (GA) is employed for optimization to obtain the optimal equivalent factor and efficiency factors under each SOC mode. Finally, real-world testing validated that the proposed ECMS operates in real time with strong adaptability. Compared to the rule-based strategy and conventional ECMS, the proposed strategy achieved 3.24% and 2.41% reductions in equivalent fuel consumption, The engine operating point loss ratio and battery power loss ratio decreased to 2.43% and 1.51%, respectively.
  Keywords: range-extended hybrid mining trucks; efficiency factor; fuel consumption equivalent factor; A-ECMS; adaptive equivalent consumption minimisation strategy; energy management strategy.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJHVS.2025.10076383
   
  
• Military unmanned ground vehicles: technologies, capabilities, and future trends  
  by Hossam Ragheb 
  Abstract: Military unmanned ground vehicles have evolved from experimental platforms to critical assets in reconnaissance, mine clearance, logistics, and combat support missions. This review summarizes the historical development, key enabling technologies, operational applications, and current challenges. We examine the origins of AI-driven autonomy from the 1990s to the present day, analyzing sensor fusion architectures, navigation algorithms, mobility solutions, and human-robot interaction paradigms. Technical challenges related to terrain sensing, autonomy integration, reliability, and multiple robot coordination are discussed in detail. We identify critical research directions, such as integrated decision-making structures, collaborative mobility sensing, swarm coordination, and ethical frameworks for killer autonomy. The review presents the cutting edge in military UGV technology and shows the way forward for the next generation of researchers, military planners, and policy makers.
  Keywords: UGVs; unmanned ground vehicles; military robotics; autonomous navigation; combat robotics; human-robot interaction; artificial intelligence; multi-robot systems.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJHVS.2026.10076914
   
  
• Intelligent suspension control system for autonomous vehicles based on multi-sensor information fusion  
  by Peng Ding, Wang Zhong, Gu Xiaoyong, Zhang Meijuan 
  Abstract: An intelligent suspension control method based on multi-sensor information fusion is proposed to enhance the safety and comfort of autonomous vehicles on damaged roads. A quarter-suspension vibration model integrating multi-sensor data is established to reveal the relationship between road roughness and vehicle vibration. A camera and radar are employed to scan uneven road conditions, developing a mathematical road roughness model. Information fusion and matching are achieved through edge intersection ratio detection and the global nearest neighbours (GNN) algorithm, ensuring high model reliability in complex environments. The optimal damping ratio is calculated using vehicle speed and road roughness data, enabling real-time suspension adaptation to road variations. Test results demonstrate that the maximum vibrational acceleration of the proposed system is reduced by over 43% compared to passive suspension, confirming the effectiveness of this intelligent control approach.
  Keywords: driverless vehicle; intelligent suspension control; multi-sensor information fusion; road roughness estimation; GNN algorithm; semi-active suspension; dynamical model; vibration control; road profile recognition.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJHVS.2025.10077061