International Journal of Masonry Research and Innovation (22 papers in press)

Regular Issues

• Glass panels supported by spider fittings: advantages, challenges, and applications in modern masonry facades  
  by Muhammad Tayyab Naqash, Antonio Formisano 
  Abstract: This paper provides an overview of point-supported glass systems using spider fittings, highlighting their advantages and challenges. A parametric analysis is performed on horizontal and vertical glass panels in canopies and curtain walls supported by spiders. Different glass thicknesses (6 mm, 8 mm and 10 mm) and wind loads (1 kPa, 1.25 kPa and 2 kPa) are considered. The paper also includes the case study of a building with a unique facade design that employs spider fittings, outlining the engineering considerations necessary for a successful installation. Two cases have been shown herein: a canopy with glass panels and a curtain wall, both supported by spider fittings. The curtain wall comprises double-glazed units with a 6 + 1.52 + 6 air gap (12 mm) on one side and an 8 + 1.52 + 6 air gap. The entire structural system is found safe according to different acceptance criteria that structural codes recommend.
  Keywords: glass panels; point-supported glass systems; spider fittings; masonry architecture; façade design; curtain walls.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2024.10063211
   
  
• Structural behaviour of unbonded post-tensioned masonry walls with threaded rods in clay block  
  by Bregy Choque, Caori Takeuchi 
  Abstract: Masonry is one of the oldest and least expensive construction techniques, however, its fragile failure mode and its low performance to tension stress make it necessary to complement its system with the use of reinforcement steel. In some cases, it is ineffective since the compressive resistance that masonry can resist is wasted, and at this point it is preferred to use pre-stressing force. In this context, the behaviour of the masonry wall was studied with a given pre-compression before service loads. This study aimed to present the evaluation of a new post-tensioning system in clay block structural masonry through an experimental methodology, in which the characterisation of the materials (mortar, masonry units, aggregates, steel bars) and the characterisation of the masonry (compression walls, diagonal tension, monotonic and cyclic lateral loading) were carried out. It was found that the application of a 5kN concentric vertical pre-stressing in the masonry significantly increases the in-plane ultimate strength of the wall (5.72 kN19.88 kN). The hysteresis cycle envelope for the post-tensioned wall showed a ductility (= y/max.) of 16.12, which is evidence of adequate ductility for this proposed post-tensioning system.
  Keywords: posttensioned masonry; prestressed; clay; numeric model; unbonded pre-stressing.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2024.10063399
   
  
• Improving building energy performance based on building information modelling approach  
  by Yousif Youkhanna Zaia, Sarhat Mustafa Adam, Farsat Heeto Abdulrahman 
  Abstract: The construction industry has predominantly relied on conventional building methods that prioritise elevated energy consumption over the entire life cycle of a structure. Most greenhouse gas emissions occur while operating the building. In Iraq, the use of insulation materials is optional, and most buildings are built using traditional materials. Therefore, retrofitting existing buildings using renewable materials can reduce global energy consumption and greenhouse gases emissions. For that reason, the utilisation of technology in the construction industry is imperative to attain enhanced productivity outcomes. Thus, one of the most valuable technologies is building information modelling (BIM). This study aims to analyse and optimise the energy efficiency of a building through the utilisation of Autodesk Revit and Insight 360. The results indicated that the energy consumption in the building decreased from $6.28/m2/year to $3.56/m2/year. Applying parameters to energy analysis can lead to enhanced conceptual designs that are effective from an environmental standpoint.
  Keywords: building information modelling; BIM; building parameters; energy analysis and optimisation; energy modelling; energy costs.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2024.10063400
   
  
• Improve the behaviour of ancient limestone walls using mortar with glass fibre under cyclic loads  
  by Ghada Al Esrawy, Hala Hasan 
  Abstract: Masonry buildings represent an important part of the human heritage worldwide and preservation of these old structures is one of the priorities of both private owners and the authorities. Masonry structures suffer from their inappropriate performance under extreme loads such as earthquakes and the retrofitting operations require correct control of the quality of the original mortar. Indeed, the use of cementations repairing material instead lime joint mortar leads to the apparition of cracks on the stone-mortar interfaces. In the present work, an experimental program was first conducted to study the effect of the joint mortar and limestone qualities on the cyclic performance of masonry walls. Fifty mortars were prepared using available local pozzolanic powders, recycled brick and glass fibres at different contents and tested to achieve the optimal mix design. One layer and multi-layers masonry prisms were built using glass fibre reinforced mortars to assess the overall performance under uniaxial and flexural loadings. Numerical analysis was performed using a micro-mechanical model to validate the obtained experimental results. In addition to the results obtained in this work, the results of other tests available in the literature were also validated. The obtained results showed a clear enhancement in the overall seismic behaviour and the ductility by using the glass fibre mortar.
  Keywords: lime mortar; glass fibre; masonry; cyclic loads.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2024.10063469
   
  
• Effect of waste PET fibre on rheological and mechanical properties of self-compacting concrete  
  by Shireen T. Saadullah, James H. Haido, Yaman S.S. Al-Kamaki 
  Abstract: One of the prevalent environmental issues is the disposal of solid waste, particularly polyethylene terephthalate (PET), which primarily originates from plastic drinking bottles. The objective of this study is to observe the impact of incorporating PET waste fibres (PETWF) on the rheological and mechanical properties of self-compacting concrete (SCC). Different volumetric ratios of waste PET fibres (0%, 0.25%, and 0.5%) with fibre lengths of 2 cm and 4 cm were used. Fresh concrete tests showed that mixes with PETWF having a length of 2 cm meet the criteria of self-compactability of concrete, irrespective of the fibres content. The hardened concrete tests showed a slight enhancement in compressive and tensile strength of mixtures that incorporating 0.25%PET fibre (2 cm), and also showed that the plastic fibres have a significant impact on enhancement the flexural strength of mixtures containing (0.5%PET) fibres (4 cm). The achieved results are very interesting and suggest the potential use of PETWF in structural components of SCC, as the inclusion of these fibres in concrete retards the formation of micro-cracks.
  Keywords: self-compacting concrete; SCC; waste PET fibre; rheological properties; mechanical properties.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2024.10064002
   
  
• Performance of lime-based coating mortars with aggregate from different industries  
  by Poliana Bellei, João Pacheco, Maria Paula Mendes, Julio Veloso, Runar Solstad, Isabel Torres, Inês Flores-Colen 
  Abstract: This study focuses on the reuse of various types of waste, including industrial waste from aquaculture (oyster shells), plastics (disposable protective masks), and construction and demolition waste used as aggregates in hydraulic lime mortars. The researchers conducted mortar characterisation tests in the fresh state, as well as in the hardened state. The mortars containing oyster shells and construction and demolition recycled aggregates did not exhibit significant differences compared to the reference mortar. However, the mortars produced with construction and demolition recycled aggregates demonstrated higher mechanical strengths than the other mixtures. The viscosity of the reference mortar and of the mortars with 100% construction and demolition recycled aggregate showed similar results. The type IIR face mask waste incorporation into the mortars resulted in the lowest density of all lime-based mortars tested. Utilising industrial waste in composites contributes to a circular economy, reducing raw material extraction, and minimising landfilling.
  Keywords: oyster shell; type IIR face mask; construction and demolition recycled aggregate; hydraulic lime mortar.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2024.10064113
   
  
• Investigation of the behaviour of recycled aggregate concrete columns under bi-eccentric compression  
  by Bushra D. Alakkari, Soleman A. Alamodi 
  Abstract: This paper investigates the behaviour of recycled aggregate concrete columns under bi-eccentric compression. In order to assess the results, samples of concrete mixes containing 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% recycled aggregate were prepared and tested. In addition, reinforced concrete columns designated C0, C25, C50, C75 and C100 were fabricated and tested under monotonic biaxial eccentric compression loading using three eccentricity values. The results show that the stress-strain curve for concrete made with recycled aggregates has a similar shape to that of concrete made with natural aggregates, with a lower peak stress and more deformability in the descending branch. The results led to the conclusion that recycled aggregate concrete with a controlled particle size distribution, a plasticizer and a calibrated W/C ratio could be used for columns subjected to eccentric compression. The loss in load-bearing capacity is between 2% and 20%, with the same failure modes.
  Keywords: recycled aggregate; RA; natural aggregate; bi-eccentric pressure; replacement; strain-stress curve.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2024.10064122
   
  
• Predicting compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete using natural aggregate concrete compressive strength and material proportions  
  by Wasfi Diab, Ghoson Danhash 
  Abstract: This research aims to find an empirical relationship to predict the compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete at 28 days and another one for different ages based on a set of variables; with different wide ranges of the parameters. An experimental database from 40 previous research studies was created, containing 435 results, to propose an empirical relationship for predicting the compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete. For verifying the proposed relationships, two groups of mixes were designed: the first one with a constant plasticiser ratio and the second one with a variable plasticiser ratio, and each group contains five concrete mixes using recycled aggregates with replacement ratios of 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% to conduct a compression test and compare the experimental results with those obtained from the proposed relationships. The efficiency of the suggested relationships is proven by the good concordance between the empirical and experimental data.
  Keywords: compressive strength; recycled aggregate concrete; RAC; replacement ratio; water/cement ratio; plasticiser.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2024.10064603
   
  
• Structural health monitoring of reinforced concrete structures and carbon fibre reinforced polymer by active infrared thermography methods  
  by Sam Ang Keo, Barbara Grochowalska, Franck Brachelet, Didier Defer, Chan-Young Yune 
  Abstract: The paper presents the application of infrared thermography method in detecting defect in carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) which can be used for strengthening reinforced concrete (RC) structures such as beam, column, slab and wall The presented method was also applied to detecting steel bars in an RC wall Three infrared thermography methods with three different excitation systems were used: CO2 laser, halogen lamps, and microwave The defect in CFRP (bidirectional, one layer and a thickness of 1 mm) used for strengthening a concrete plate was represented by absence of adhesive (represented by the presence of air). Another specimen of RC wall of 1000 mm by 1000 mm, and 65 mm thickness, with steel bars of 12 mm diameter (100 mm of spacing), was used to investigate the reinforcement inspection. A mid-wavelength infrared camera, with a 320 by 256 matrix detector, was used to record the thermograms.
  Keywords: structural health monitoring; SHM; infrared thermography; carbone fibre reinforced polymer; CFRP; steel reinforcements; microwave; reinforced concrete; RC structures.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2024.10067102
   
  
• Performance evaluation of modified gabion retaining wall  
  by Ganesh C. Chikute, Anand B. Tapase, Dnyaneshwar V. Wadkar, Dinesh Y. Dhande, Manoj P. Wagh 
  Abstract: The conventional gabion wall is gaining popularity due to its simplicity, rapid construction, flexibility, and versatile applications. Nevertheless, it does have some drawbacks, including large cross-section areas, inefficiency in Gabion mesh usage, and challenges in sourcing suitable stones. Therefore, the conventional gabion wall requires modifications to address these limitations. To address these concerns, an experimental study was conducted on an externally reinforced open joint block masonry wall using gabion mesh. This paper provides insights into the construction process, testing arrangements, and the results of these modifications. The modified gabion wall proved to be cost-effective, reducing the cross-section area by approximately 50%, while being time-efficient, eco-friendly, and reusable. These modified walls are very effective in landslide area due to its flexibility and simplicity as compared with conventional gabion wall. Additionally, there is potential for further adaptations to suit specific site conditions.
  Keywords: modified gabion wall; retaining wall; model testing.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2024.10065306
   
  
• Mechanical properties estimation of historical masonry buildings the Louvre Museum case study  
  by Thirunathan Muniswamy, Hemapriya Mani, M. Vinoth Kanna, Janani Selvam 
  Abstract: The characteristics of the materials used in the construction of masonry buildings have a considerable influence on the general behaviour of these structures throughout their growth. The study technique comprises a number of different components, such as data from experiments that were obtained via on-site sampling, tests and analyses that were carried out, historical information, and observations that were made during field surveys. It was feasible to undertake research into the basic physical and mechanical features of the components of the masonry by making use of stone blocks, mortars, and core-infill materials. This study was the result of the utilisation of these materials.
  Keywords: masonry walls; construction materials; architectural heritage; microanalysis; mineralogical investigation.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2024.10065433
   
  
• Digital image correlation for post-cracking assessment of synthetic fibre-reinforced mortar  
  by Haruna Ibrahim, Hanaa Fares, George Wardeh 
  Abstract: This study investigates the impact of polypropylene short synthetic (SSYN) and long synthetic (LSYN) fibres on the mechanical performance of structural mortars and validates the digital image correlation (DIC) technique for post-cracking assessment. Though precise, traditional strain measurement devices like strain gauges and LVDTs cannot generate strain maps and require meticulous setup. The study used DIC to characterise fracture behaviour in mortars. Three series of mortars were prepared: normal strength mortar (NSM), high strength mortar (HSM), and high strength mortar with Fly Ash (HSFAM), reinforced with Sika force fibres (19 mm and 54 mm) at 0.6% and 1% by volume. Tests examined workability, mechanical properties, and post-cracking properties of 40x40x160 mm prisms at different ages. Results showed increased compressive strength with low fibre addition and significant enhancement in flexural strength. Residual tensile strength and deformation ability were higher at 1% fibre content, with post-cracking behaviour shifting from softening to hardening.
  Keywords: mortar; synthetic fibres; DIC; flexural strength; compressive strength; post-cracking.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2024.10067103
   
  
• A proposed plan for managing construction waste in Syria  
  by Mazen Ibrahim, Ranya Essa, Abdallateif Ahmad Almohammed 
  Abstract: The accumulation of construction waste is one of the most important problems that needs to be solved in cities due to its negative environmental and economic effects. Therefore, the idea of recycling construction waste and reusing recycled products as a substitute for raw materials is the main point of this paper. The process of recycling and managing construction waste is not used significantly in Syria, despite the huge amounts of construction waste generated after the war, earthquakes, and other construction demolitions. Therefore, in this research, a realistic plan for how construction waste is managed through recycling and reusing waste materials at construction sites in Syria was developed. This plan highlighted the points that are applied in the Syrian construction sites and the points that are not implemented in these sites despite their great importance and proposed solutions to obstacles that may be encountered in the work at these sites.
  Keywords: plan; construction waste; recycling; waste management; reusing; Syria.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2024.10066352
   
  
• Using neural networks to predict biological oxygen demand removal in integrated fixed film activated sludge process  
  by Diala Shehab, Heba Aljaddou, Ghassan Durra Al Haddad 
  Abstract: The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) is a necessary parameter for the effective control and monitoring of the wastewater treatment plants , and predicting the removal of BOD5 would eliminate the delay in measuring the BOD5 using laboratory methods. In this paper, the artificial neural networks were used to build a predictive model for BOD5 removal in Integrated fixed film activated sludge process, when pumice stone was used as a biological carrier in the aeration tank in the experimental plant, , the experiments were conducted, by changing the organic loading and the filling ratio of the pumice stone. The model was built based on two parameters which are (organic load rate OLR, pumice filling ratio P). The ideal network architecture was reached after a number of trials and errors (2-90-1), where the root mean squared error (RMSE) value for the best network was (0.665). The value of the correlation coefficient was (99.45%).
  Keywords: sludge; biological carriers; pumice stone; aeration tanks; artificial neural networks; ANNs; BOD5.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2024.10067104
   
  
• Valorisation of demolition and construction wastes rejected over Moroccan cities, contribution to the decarbonation of the country, economic development and resources save  
  by Mourad Morsli, Mohamed Tahiri, Azzeddine Samdi, Rajae Addou 
  Abstract: In Morocco, construction, together with public works, represents the sector that produces inert wastes. In 2015, 14 million tons of demolition and construction wastes were produced (CETEMCO, 2020). Our project is oriented towards recycling and using concrete wastes. We present concrete results in recycling and exploiting this abundant deposit. We used Google E-GIS technology to gather and geolocate the deposit ares of demolition and construction waste. The waste was characterised by FX-ray, while particle size separation was performed by sieving after crushing and grinding. Each obtained fraction was used to develop suitable building materials like coatings and light cement. The materials were tested for flexural and compressive strength, which decreased with increasing demolition waste substitution. It targets to offer cost-effective materials that are environment-friendly for building and construction purposes, as well as for the rehabilitation of quarries and the construction of roads, bridges, and pluvial basins.
  Keywords: demolition and construction waste; recovery and recycling; light cement; decorative gravel; coating; Casablanca; Morocco.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2024.10066864
   
  
• Assessment of mortar and paste properties in the presence of nutrients used in bacteria-based self-healing  
  by Adonay Pinto, Belén González-Fonteboa, Sindy Seara-Paz, Fernando Martínez-Abella 
  Abstract: Small cracks in cement-based materials represent one of their primary weak points. To address this, self-sealing techniques have emerged, being one of them the use of bacteria and nutrients. The objective of this work is to analyse the effect that these nutrients have on the properties of mortars and pastes. To achieve this, yeast extract, calcium lactate and calcium nitrate were selected. For mortar characterization, compressive strength, and shrinkage tests were developed. These tests were complemented with rheological tests Stress Growth Test and Flow Curve Test in pastes. The results demonstrate how the incorporation of these nutrients alters the properties of mortars and pastes, such as the decrease of almost 50% in early age strengths when yeast extract is used at 1.25%, the significant increase in shrinkage when lactate is employed at 4% by up to 81%, or the increase in fluidity when nitrate is used, among others.
  Keywords: self-healing; yeast-extract; calcium-lactate; calcium-nitrate; mortar; paste.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2024.10067054
   
  
• The effect of lateral force distribution patterns on the behaviour of RC frame buildings  
  by Abak Badran, Fadwa Issa, Bassam Hwaiji 
  Abstract: The lateral force distribution pattern (LFDP) used in the seismic design of RC buildings is one of the most important factors influencing the design results. This pattern may lead to large inelastic deformations as it may not represent the real response during exposure to earthquakes, which makes the building behave unexpectedly during the nonlinear stage. This study was conducted to investigate the effect of six lateral force distribution patterns (taken from seismic codes and the literature) on the nonlinear behaviour of three-dimensional concrete frames designed according to the Syrian Arab Code. The study utilised nonlinear static and dynamic analyses using three seismic records [El-Centro (1940), Kobe (1995) and Northridge (1994)] scaled to several intensities (0.25 g, 0.3 g and 0.35 g). The results demonstrated that the code patterns produced satisfactory results for drift ratios and damage during designed earthquakes. However, as the degree of nonlinearity increased, some of the proposed patterns exhibited more uniform distributions of damage and drift ratio compared to the code patterns.
  Keywords: lateral force distribution pattern; seismic design; nonlinear static analysis; nonlinear dynamic analysis.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2024.10067144
   
  
• Investigating the effect of varying steel fibre ratios on the compressive and tensile characteristics of SIFCON  
  by Yahya Sayah Shkhair, Muhammad Jawad Kadhim 
  Abstract: Slurry-infiltrated fibre concrete (SIFCON) combines the strengths of conventional concrete and high-performance fibres. It demonstrates exceptional strength, durability and resistance to cracking, making it suitable for diverse construction applications. SIFCONs enhanced mechanical properties, including tensile, flexural, and impact strength, render it ideal for structures requiring high load-bearing capacity and structural integrity. Comprised of cement, fine aggregates, and fibres, SIFCON provides an advanced solution for structures needing high strength, longevity, and crack control. The incorporated fibres arrest crack propagation through the matrix. Experiments have shown considerable improvements in SIFCONs strength with increasing steel fibre content. Compressive strength increased by 293%, split tensile strength by 612%, and direct tensile strength by 415% with steel fibres ranging from 26%. SIFCONs constituent materials, namely cement and fine aggregates, must meet specific physical property and testing standards. SIFCON represents a milestone innovation in construction materials, offering engineers and architects amplified properties compared to conventional concrete.
  Keywords: SIFCON; compressive strength; tensile strength; steel fibre; silica fume; super plasticiser; dog bone test.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2024.10067183
   
  
• Seismic performance evaluation and SWOT analysis of retrofitted reinforced concrete building  
  by Ayed Eid Alluqmani, Muhammad Tayyab Naqash, A. B. M. Saiful Islam 
  Abstract: The Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia was previously considered seismically inactive, but the recent earthquake in the Jeddah region has raised concerns. Therefore, the safety of the holy cities (Madinah and Makkah) must incorporate seismic effects in design. This research focuses on the performance of multi-story office buildings under lateral loads in the Madinah region. Furthermore, the SWOT (strength, weakness, opportunities, threats) analysis has been carried out to pinpoint the detailed scenario of the retrofitting ideology. The study showed that retrofitting systems can highly increase the lateral strength of the existing structures. It has been proved that a non earthquake-resistant building can be transferred to an earthquake-resistant facility by following solutions with a level arrangement. The mechanism appears to increase the lateral strength resistance of the seismically vulnerable building. The bracing system exhibits the highest increase in strength. Such retrofitting approaches demonstrate their potential to be applied to vulnerable structures.
  Keywords: retrofitting mechanism; earthquake resistance; lateral loads; seismic performance; SWOT analysis.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2025.10068727
   
  
• Roots of failure of cultural heritage structures induced by the 2023 Kahramanmaras earthquakes  
  by Enes Arkan, Mustafa Topalan, Gabriele Milani, Ercan Işık, Fatih Avcil, Aydın Büyüksaraç, Rabia İzol, Musa Hakan Arslan, Mine Topçubaşı, Emine Dağtekin, Hatice Derya Arslan 
  Abstract: The earthquakes in Turkiye on February 6, 2023, resulted in devastating losses, impacting approximately 14% of the countrys population and causing severe structural damage to historic buildings. This study focuses on the historical structures in Hatay, Adyaman, and Kahramanmaras, with particular attention to Sanlurfa, home to some of humanitys oldest monumental sites. These buildings, primarily constructed using masonry techniques, experienced varying degrees of damage from the earthquakes. Some structures suffered partial collapse, while others total collapse. The study includes a comparative examination of selected buildings in the affected area, assessing their condition before and after the earthquakes. It explores the cause and-effect relationships regarding the damages observed and offers recommendations for future preservation and resilience. Additionally, the research provides detailed historical context for the examined structures, highlighting their significance and the impact of the earthquakes on their integrity and heritage.
  Keywords: Kahramanmaras earthquakes; cultural heritage; historical building; structural damage; masonry structure.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2025.10069200
   
  
• A polyhedral approximation of the yield domain for masonry sections  
  by Filomena Galizia, Alberto Fiorenza, Carlalberto Anselmi, Enrico Babilio 
  Abstract: In this paper, the problem of approximating the yield domain of a generic masonry section subjected to a compressive normal force is addressed. The masonry is modelled as a no-tension material with limited strength in compression and the actual yield domain is a surface described by nonlinear functions dependent on the normal force and bending moments. A suitable polyhedral approximation of such a domain is proposed. Since the goal is its use in limit analysis, to assess the practical applicability of the polyhedral domain, the multiplier of collapse loads is estimated for an elementary case study under different loading conditions.
  Keywords: approximated yield surface; limit analysis; no-tension masonry; limited compressive strength; eccentric normal force.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2025.10069955
   
  
• Thermal properties of earth bricks: a review from 2010 until 2020  
  by Noreriyawaty Binti Mat Rani, Badorul Hisham Bin Abu Bakar, Hussin Bin Mamat 
  Abstract: This paper reviews the thermal properties of earth bricks, specifically examining research conducted between 2010 and 2020. The study focuses on key thermal properties, including thermal conductivity, resistance, diffusivity, effusivity, and transmittance, while also exploring the effects of additives on these properties. Findings from multiple studies are summarised, showcasing the performance of earth bricks across parameters like density, water absorption, and specific heat. The review highlights the promising thermal properties of earth bricks, making them suitable for sustainable building applications. However, it also identifies significant variations in thermal performance across different studies, primarily due to variations in soil type, additives used, and manufacturing processes. The paper concludes with suggestions for future research, emphasising the need for broader material performance metrics, the development of multi-functional earth bricks, the integration of computational models, comparisons with other sustainable materials, and the standardisation of testing protocols.
  Keywords: earth bricks; thermal properties; density; specific heat; water absorption; thermal conductivity; thermal resistance; thermal diffusivity; thermal effusivity; thermal transmittance.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMRI.2025.10071075