International Journal of Vehicle Design (21 papers in press)

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• This is a test paper, pleaseignore it
  by ReviewerV ReviewerC 
  Abstract: This is a test submission. Please ignore it
  Keywords: test test test test test test test test test test test test test test test test.
  
  
• Multi-mode servo braking control and experimentation of integrated electro-hydraulic braking system  
  by Houhua Jing, Liwen Dong, Qinggan Lin, Haifeng Liu 
  Abstract: As the critical problem of electric servo braking control, the relationship between hydraulic pressure, motor position and motor current is systematically analyzed. A large hysteresis exists in the pressure-position relationship. Then a multi-mode servo braking control law is proposed on the basis of experimental tests. Firstly, the influence of nonlinear friction is overcome by dither compensation to improve the smoothness of position and pressure. Secondly, the pressure-current cascade control is applied, and the feedforward is obtained based on the experimental data, which effectively avoids the nonlinear and uncertain influence of pressure-position relationship. Thirdly, position-current cascade control is applied to realize the accurate return of the motor in the release process, and overcome the influence of pressure-position large hysteresis and dead zone. Finally, the control method is comprehensively verified and analyzed based on the experimental bench. The practicability of the method is verified.
  Keywords: integrated electro-hydraulic braking; servo braking control; multi-mode control; pressure control; position control.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2024.10068496
   
  
• Multi-vehicle trajectory planning at unsignalized intersections based on cooperative vehicle-infrastructure system  
  by Yangjie Ji, Ziru Yang, Yanjun Huang, Zhuoping Yu 
  Abstract: Collaboration between infrastructures and connected and autonomous vehicles (CAVs) at unsignalized intersections has emerged as an effective strategy for improving transportation efficiency. To enhance the safety and efficiency of CAVs passing through unsignalized intersections, this paper proposes a cooperative vehicle-infrastructure system (CVIS) based multi-vehicle trajectory planning architecture. The architecture comprises a roadside planner and vehicle planners. The roadside planner formulates the problem of generating multi-vehicle trajectories as an optimization task and addresses it using an improved particle swarm optimization approach along with a space-time voxels strategy to determine the times for vehicles to reach the intersection and the trajectories passing through it. Then, the vehicle planner plans according to the results of the roadside planner. The results show that our approach enables potentially conflicting CAVs to pass through unsignalized intersections without stopping and waiting, ensuring safety while improving traffic efficiency.
  Keywords: cooperative vehicle-infrastructure system; connected and autonomous vehicles; multi-vehicle trajectory planning.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10070249
   
  
• Design and damping matching method for a novel decoupled suspension system  
  by J.N. WANG, Zhe Liu, Da Wang, Zhonghao Li, Guanrong Chen 
  Abstract: To address the coupling of stiffness and damping in the suspension system of high-performance vehicles under heave and roll manoeuvres, this paper designs a decoupled suspension system and proposes a damping matching method. First, the motion characteristics of various decoupled suspension structures are analysed, leading to the development of the decoupled suspension in which roll stiffness is provided by a torsion bar. Then, damper selection and testing are conducted, and the damping matching method for the decoupled suspension system is proposed. Finally, three tests are conducted: multi-body dynamics simulation for decoupling analysis, lap time simulation for the vehicle performance, and real-vehicle test for the symmetry of the damper motion. The results show that a race car equipped with the decoupled suspension achieves shorter lap times compared to one with a traditional suspension, and the proposed damping matching method provides an ideal baseline for suspension design and tuning.
  Keywords: race car; decoupled suspension; damping matching; multi-body dynamics simulation; lap time simulation.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10071185
   
  
• Grey comprehensive evaluation method of a passenger vehicle adaptive cruise control system  
  by Zhige Chen, Zhigang Zhang, Kai Yang, Chengcheng Qian, Xiaolin Tang 
  Abstract: The automated driving assistance function technology cannot undergo development without objective test evaluation methods. However, subjective evaluation by independent experts is required in the evaluation, which leads to subjectivity in the direct results. This study uses the i-VISTA test specification to obtain objective and reasonable results. It combines natural Chinese driving data to develop test scenarios that meet national traffic conditions. Taking the adaptive cruise control system function as an example, we propose a gray comprehensive evaluation method based on a subjective-objective wide weighting of the ACC system. First, we use the analytic hierarchy process method and entropy method to obtain the comprehensive subjectiveobjective wide weight coefficients of evaluation indices, respectively. Then, we apply the comprehensive weight to the grey method, which provides superior subjective and objective evaluation consistency. Compared with the traditional method, it overcomes the arbitrariness of the subjective assignment method and is more objective and reasonable.
  Keywords: entropy value method; grey relational analysis; automated vehicles; real scenario test.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10071186
   
  
• A novel scheme on adaptive cruise strategy for intelligent vehicles considering pavement types  
  by Shuo Bai, Lilin Shen, Xin Bai, Haonan Ding, Guoshun Cai, Weihua Wang, Guodong Yin 
  Abstract: Establishing an adaptive cruise strategy which can have an outstanding performance under various pavement types is extremely necessary to decision making for intelligent vehicles. Whereas, existing research for Tire-road friction coefficient (TRFC) estimation ignore the influence of state mutation and noise uncertainty, which will lead to an unsatisfying estimation precision. To address these problems, adaptive strong tracking square-root cubature Kalman filter (ASTSCKF) is proposed to guarantee the precision for TRFC estimation, which is composed of Sage-Husa noise estimator and strong tracing filtering. Simulation and vehicle testing based on the simulator platform indicate that ASTSCKF is capable of estimating TRFC more accurately than Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) and Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF), showing strong anti-interference to different pavement types. The proposed cruise scheme also displays an excellent tracking performance on the leading vehicle, which verifies the feasibility of the cruise scheme.
  Keywords: tyre-road friction coefficient estimation; strong tracing filtering; noise estimator; intelligent vehicles.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10071749
   
  
• Trajectory and attitude cooperative control method of Four Wheel Independently Actuated Vehicles Based on Joystick Driving Intention Input  
  by Jubiao Liu, Lin Li, Yu Feng, Xin Fang, Shuyun Lin, Wei Liu 
  Abstract: In order to solve the problem that the trajectory and attitude of the four-wheel independently actuated vehicle are difficult to be controlled jointly, that is, how to allocate the angles of the front and rear wheels, this paper proposes a manipulation mechanism. By manipulating the joystick, the driver can obtain the required slip angle and yaw rate, thereby perceiving the driver's intention for vehicle attitude control. At the same time, a robust controller is designed, taking the slip angle and yaw rate generated by the joystick as the control reference and the steering angles of the front and rear wheels as the control input to achieve cooperative vehicle trajectory and attitude control. The simulation results show that the proposed joystick and control method can improve the flexibility, stability, and safety of the vehicle.
  Keywords: Four-wheel independently actuated vehicle; Perceiving driver's intention; Automatic allocation of front and rear wheel steering angles; Robust controller.
  
  
• A stable adaptive control method for the four wheel independent steering vehicle  
  by Zhiyao Pan, Hongyu Zheng 
  Abstract: Vehicle stability control is crucial for securing vehicle driving safety, while precise stability classification can assist in enhancing the performance of vehicle control. A stable adaptive model predictive controller (MPC) of the four-wheel independent steering (4WIS) vehicle is introduced in this paper. Firstly, a new vehicle dynamic model derived from a long short-term memory (LSTM) network is established and an attribute dataset representing vehicle stability is procured further. Subsequently, we employ the Gaussian mixture model (GMM)-hidden Markov model (HMM) to classify the stability of the 4WIS vehicle. According to the different classification results, the stable adaptive MPC integrated with Bayesian optimization (BO) is designed to track an optimal trajectory with high accuracy while working under different conditions. Through the simulation tests in various typical driving scenarios, the advantages of the stability classification strategy and the stable adaptive control method proposed in this paper are confirmed.
  Keywords: stability classification; stable adaptive control; four-wheel independent steering; LSTM; HMM-GMM; dataset; trajectory.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10072493
   
  
• Complete coverage path planning algorithm for multiple agricultural robots  
  by Changjie Liu, Haobo Zhang, Yangjie Ji 
  Abstract: Multi-robot complete-coverage path planning (MCCPP) is an important direction in developing intelligent agricultural robots. Firstly, to address the problem that the existing region decomposition algorithm has too many subregions and contains concave subregions, this paper adopts the improved Maklink line to convexly decompose the workspace to obtain the minimum number of convex subregions. Secondly, the current MCCPP algorithm suffers from duplicate coverage of connection paths, uneven task allocation, and failure to consider the robot's extra energy consumption. This paper adopts the Dijkstra algorithm to plan the shortest non-duplicated connected paths between any subregions; improves the existing objective function by combining with the actual; and retains the high-quality gene fragments for chromosome crossover according to the breakpoints. Finally, the improved Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm (NSGA-II) is simulated in real planting areas, and the total connected paths and planting area balance are optimised compared to the traditional NSGA-II.
  Keywords: precision agriculture; multi-robots; complete coverage path planning; NSGA-II; non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2024.10067304
   
  
• Integrated ASMO-DCKF state observer for distributed drive vehicles  
  by Peng Ji, Fengrui Han, Yifan Zhao 
  Abstract: To address the issue of inadequate information correction capabilities between the vehicle tyre force observer and state estimator, this study introduces an estimation algorithm that combines an adaptive sliding-mode observer with a double-cubature Kalman filter state estimator (ASMO-DCKF). Firstly, a seven-degree-of-freedom vehicle model is established, and a sliding-mode observer (SMO) is used to estimate tyre forces. A saturation function is utilised as a substitute for singular values to address system oscillation issues. Subsequently, double-cubature Kalman filter state estimators are used - one for vehicle state estimation and the other for road adhesion coefficient estimation. These two estimators mutually correct each other to enhance accuracy in estimating vehicle and road conditions. The Speedgoat-CarSim hardware-in-the-loop simulation platform is established to examine the proposed algorithm under typical operating conditions and compare it with the extended Kalman filter (EKF) algorithm. Results show a notable enhancement in the robustness and accuracy of the proposed algorithm over the EKF algorithm.
  Keywords: tyre force observation; vehicle state estimation; ASMO; adaptive sliding-mode observer; double-cubature Kalman filter; road adhesion coefficient.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10072990
   
  
• Effect of different winding patterns on parasitic capacitance in common mode chokes  
  by Ziyan Wang, Qi Li, Dafang Wang, Haonan Sun 
  Abstract: Wide-bandgap devices including silicon carbide (SiC) exacerbate electromagnetic compatibility issues in electric propulsion systems. Accurate modelling of the filter components is of great importance. The parasitic capacitance in the common mode choke has a major influence on the high-frequency noise suppression performance, and is determined by several factors, including the material permittivity, the geometric parameters and the winding patterns. The influence of winding patterns remains understudied. This study addresses this gap by analysing two chokes winding patterns: sectional and bifilar windings. Physics-based models derive parasitic capacitance expressions for sectional and bifilar winding chokes. Voltage difference positively correlates with capacitance of bifilar windings choke, and its application scope is defined. Experiments validate models, showing bifilar chokes outperform sectional counterparts in low-voltage difference scenarios.
  Keywords: electric propulsion systems; common mode chokes; equivalent parasitic capacitance; winding patterns.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10070047
   
  
• Study on the transient dynamics of an electric driving system considering the interference fit and thermal expansion effects of tapered roller bearings  
  by Ming Li, Yufa Zhou, Dong Guo, Chuan Fang, Rao Wenyi 
  Abstract: The dynamic characteristics of the electric driving system in pure electric vehicles are explored in this paper, with consideration given to the effects of bearing interference fit and thermal expansion. Various factors such as radial stiffness of the bearings, axial stiffness of the bearings, gear mesh stiffness, and backlash were taken into account. A transient dynamic model suitable for transient conditions of electric driving system was established. The model's accuracy has been verified through bench tests. The effects of bearing interference fit and thermal expansion on the dynamic characteristics of the electric driving system under tip in/out conditions were studied. Research shows that under tip in/out conditions, as the interference amount and temperature of the tapered roller bearing increase, the fluctuation amplitude of the motor rotor speed has a downward trend. The amplitude of vibration acceleration fluctuations in the bearing seats of each shaft has been reduced.
  Keywords: electric driving system; tip in/out; transient dynamics; bearing interference fit; bearing thermal expansion.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10069795
   
  
• Research on fusion control of driving anti-skid and hill starting for distributed driving vehicles  
  by Hongliang Wang, Zhiwei Liu, Dawei Pi, Xiong Wang, Weihua Wang, Jinxiang Wu, Yongjun Yan 
  Abstract: Improvement of off-road passability and safety of off-road vehicles, a hill starting control method fusing drive anti-slip control technology is proposed. Firstly, the axle load adaptive torque distribution method for torque pre-distribution is developed, and secondly, based on the coupling relationship between the attachment force, driving force and braking force in hill start, the braking retardation method is used to identify the wheel attachment state. The wheel drive torque and braking torque of the slipping wheels are limited by the maximum transferable torque method, and the loss torque of the slipping wheels is distributed to the other wheels according to the slipping state and axle load ratio of each wheel. Subsequently, a logic threshold-based distributed drive system and electronic parking system (EPB) cooperative control method are established to adjust the braking force of the parking brake in real time. Finally, comparative studies and simulations confirm its effectiveness.
  Keywords: distributed driving; hill start; EPB; electronic parking system; anti-skid control.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10070440
   
  
• Adaptive path tracking for all-wheel steering heavy-duty vehicles based on model predictive control  
  by Yunpeng Li, Shangwen Li, Peng Li, Qihan Wang, Hengyang Sun, Yanjun Huang 
  Abstract: This paper proposes a control algorithm with an adaptive adjustment strategy based on model predictive control (MPC) for all-wheel steering multi-axle vehicles. Firstly, the dynamics of a three-axle vehicle is analysed and modelled, followed by an all-wheel steering path tracking strategy. Secondly, the boundary features of road curvature radius are obtained based on various cornering manoeuvre tests under different operating conditions, which lay a foundation for steering axles switching. In addition, an adaptive adjustment strategy is developed to decide when and how to activate the steering axle according to driving conditions. Finally, simulation is conducted based on a mixed road scenario in TruckSim/Simulink, verifying that the proposed all-wheel steering strategy with an adaptive axle adjustment approach provides a higher path tracking accuracy, a better vehicle stability, and a stronger robustness compared to the front-wheel steering strategy.
  Keywords: three-axle heavy-duty vehicles; MPC; model predictive control; all-wheel steering; path tracking; adaptive steering axle adjustment.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10071426
   
  
• Vibration characteristics and active control strategy of hybrid vehicle dual-motor electric drive system under transient impact conditions  
  by Shuaishuai Ge, Mengke Li, Shuang Hou, Zhengqiu Xie, Zhigang Zhang, Hang Wu 
  Abstract: For torsional vibration due to transient impact loads such as road surface inequality during the driving process of a hybrid electric vehicles (HEV), an electromechanical coupling dynamics model of the dual-motor electric drive system (DEDS) is established by considering the dynamic characteristics of the drive motors, the nonlinear meshing impact excitation of the gear transmission system, etc. The dynamic response and vibration characteristics of the DEDS are analysed during sudden step changes in load. On this basis, the fuzzy active disturbance rejection current compensation (F-ADRCC) control strategy is proposed, and fuzzy controller is applied to adapt the internal parameters of the F-ADRCC controller, to realise the active suppression of transient inrush vibration. The simulation results show that the vibration energy of the gear transmission system is significantly reduced after adopting the F-ADRCC control strategy. The research results can provide a theoretical reference for DEDS vibration damping of HEVs.
  Keywords: transient impact conditions; vibration characteristics; DEDS; active control strategy; fuzzy controller.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2024.10070325
   
  
• Adaptive anti-slip wheel-speed synchronisation control for hill drive of distributed-drive electric vehicles  
  by Shuaishuai Ge, Hao Wang, Zhigang Zhang, Huan Wang 
  Abstract: Distributed-drive electric vehicles (DDEVs) are prone to wheel slippage when driven on low-friction slopes, particularly when their centre of gravity changes. This study proposes an anti-slip wheel-speed synchronisation control for ramps based on adaptive drive-torque redistribution (ASWSSC-RADTR) to address this issue. A dynamic model including the chassis and motor drive system is developed using Amesim and MATLAB/Simulink to study the dynamic characteristics of DDEVs during acceleration, startup, and straight-line driving. The performance of the ASWSSC-R-ADTR is compared with that of other control strategies in terms of longitudinal slip and acceleration on various slopes. Furthermore, the anti-interference and anti-slip capabilities of ASWSSC-R-ADTR are evaluated for sudden changes in the vehicle centre of mass. The results demonstrate that ASWSSC-R-ADTR effectively addresses excessive wheel slippage and exhibits excellent robustness.
  Keywords: distributed drive; ramp anti-slip; synchronisation control; torque distribution; mass centre shift.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10072247
   
  
• An adaptive sliding mode control for four-wheel hub electric vehicle yaw stability control  
  by Yuanjie Ma, Xinglin Zhou, Maoping Ran 
  Abstract: This paper aims to improve the stability of four-wheel electric vehicles driven by hub motors. An adaptive sliding mode control (ASMC) is proposed to estimate the additional yaw moment required for stability control system of passenger vehicles. Then the additional yaw moment is distributed to the wheel hub motor through designed optimal distribution controller. The stability of the controller is verified by Lyapunov method. A hierarchical control structure is applied throughout the system. The upper layer is an ASMC, and the lower layer is an optimal distributor for distributing the additional yaw moment to wheels under constraints. The co-simulation between Matlab/Simulink and CarSim shows that the controller suggested in this work performs better in terms of control than traditional sliding mode control (SMC). Moreover, it demonstrates a noteworthy enhancement impact on vehicle stability and driver comfort.
  Keywords: distributed drive; sideslip angle estimation; yaw stability control; driving torque distribution; co-simulation.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2024.10070365
   
  
• Analysis and optimisation of a new Septal coil in-wheel switched reluctance motor  
  by Dongyu Yang, Zhenjie Zhang, Yanyan Ding 
  Abstract: To enhance the average torque and torque density of in-wheel switched reluctance motors (IWSRM) for electric vehicles, a novel four-phase 16/18 IWSRM with the segmented coil is proposed. The basic structure and electromagnetic characteristics of the new IWSRM are analysed. Based on finite element analysis, the magnetic flux linkage, magnetic co-energy, inductance, and torque characteristics are studied and compared with the typical four-phase 16/18 IWSRM and 16/20 IWSRM with traditional winding structure. The results show the new IWSRM has higher average torque under medium/low current conditions. A multi-objective optimisation function based on average torque and torque density is established. The stator pole arc and rotor pole arc are selected for optimising the new IWSRM. The results without and with optimisation indicate the average torque and torque density of the motor can respectively be improved by 21.6% and 16.7% under a current of 100 A.
  Keywords: IWSRM; in-wheel switched reluctance motor; Septal coil; finite element analysis; multi-objective optimisation.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10070654
   
  
• Analysing the impact of magnetic coupler materials for wireless power transfer in electric vehicles  
  by Ankur Yadav, Tushar Kanti Bera 
  Abstract: This research examines the impact of magnetic materials on wireless power transfer (WPT) systems for electric vehicles (EVs), focusing on 3D coil and coupler design using Ansys Maxwell. It explores how material choice influences WPT performance and reliability, analyzing parameters like coupling (k), mutual (M), and self-inductance (L) alongside magnetic flux density (B), field strength (H), energy, and thermal effects across air gaps (40-200 mm). Matlab verifies output voltage, current, power, and power transfer efficiency (PTE). Results show that ferrite achieves a peak PTE of 94.3% at an 80 mm gap, with a 30.4 kg weight and 400 × 400 × 20 mm dimensions, while alloy steel yields 73.9% PTE at 50.67 kg. The study aids in selecting materials to optimize PTE, reduce losses, ensure safety, and improve reliability, advancing WPT technology for efficient EV charging infrastructure.
  Keywords: materials; Ferrite shielding; permalloy; Nickel-Iron; alloy steel; WPT; wireless power transfer; Ansys Maxwell; coil geometry; magnetic coupler.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10070441
   
  
• Analysis of dynamic characteristics of power transmission system of P2 hybrid vehicle under transient conditions  
  by Wenlong Zhu, Changzhao Liu, Jian Luo, Yanzhao Su 
  Abstract: This work aimed to investigate the dynamics of the power transmission system in hybrid vehicles under transient conditions. First, the dynamic driving torque of a four-cylinder engine and a permanent magnet synchronous motor was derived. A hybrid dynamic model of the transmission system was created, and the validity of this modelling approach was verified through experiments. Additionally, a rigid-flexible coupling dynamics model for the hybrid vehicle powertrain was developed. The results of analysing the dynamic response characteristics of different mode switching processes show that, across mode-switching conditions, the meshing torque amplitude of the gear pair on the bearing input shaft varied significantly. The study also examined the dynamic response characteristics of the continuous shift system in combined drive mode. The results showed that synchroniser engagement can cause knocking during continuous shifts, and gear pair meshing torque may reverse direction during a shift.
  Keywords: hybrid vehicle; dynamic response characteristics; powertrain system; transient conditions; rigid-flexible coupling dynamics model.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10072887
   
  
• Design of safety integrated experience smart cabin hardware-in-the-loop system  
  by Tianyang Wang, Taisong Cui, Dekuan Kong, Changqing Yin, Yulin Han, Dafang Wang 
  Abstract: To ensure comprehensive safety policy verification and effective human-computer interaction evaluation in automotive smart cabins, this paper introduces a sophisticated hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) system. This system is equipped with advanced motion simulation and scenario simulation capabilities, enabling realistic driving experience tests. The paper provides a detailed description of the entire system architecture, encompassing the functional definition of each subsystem, the meticulous selection of both hardware and software components, and the critical design parameters. Additionally, the paper presents the application of this platform for pre-collision strategy verification and a thorough driving experience evaluation of the active control retractor, showcasing the system's practical utility and robustness.
  Keywords: HIL; hardware-in-the-loop; smart cabin; active control retractor; motion simulation; driving experience.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10072130