International Journal of Vehicle Design (23 papers in press)

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  An obstacle avoidance path selection for autonomous vehicles based on multi-dimensional data mining ( Free Full-text Access )

  by Aiju Wang, Yao Yao, Zhanlei Shang 
  Abstract: In order to overcome the problems of poor obstacle avoidance path selection, low success rate, and long time in traditional methods, a new obstacle avoidance path selection method for autonomous vehicles based on multi-dimensional data mining is proposed. The method employs the K-means algorithm to process multi-sensor data (including visual cameras, LiDAR, GPS, and traffic flow) for environmental data collection in autonomous vehicles. Based on the collected data and constraints, a target function for obstacle avoidance path selection of unmanned vehicles is constructed. The optimization function is solved using the whale optimization algorithm (WOA), and the optimal solution obtained is the obstacle avoidance path selection scheme for unmanned vehicles. Experimental results show that the proposed method for autonomous vehicle lane changing has a relatively large angle and short path, without collision problems. The maximum success rate of obstacle avoidance path selection is 98.56%, and the minimum time is 0.44s.
  Keywords: multi-dimensional data mining; autonomous vehicles; obstacle avoidance path selection; K-means algorithm; objective function; killer whale hunting algorithm.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10071859
   
  
• This is a test paper, pleaseignore it
  by ReviewerV ReviewerC 
  Abstract: This is a test submission. Please ignore it
  Keywords: test test test test test test test test test test test test test test test test.
  
  
• Complete coverage path planning algorithm for multiple agricultural robots  
  by Changjie Liu, Haobo Zhang, Yangjie Ji 
  Abstract: Multi-robot complete coverage path planning (MCCPP) is an important direction in developing intelligent agricultural robots. Firstly, to address the problem that the existing region decomposition algorithm has too many subregions and contains concave subregions, this paper adopts the improved Maklink line to convexly decompose the workspace to obtain the minimum number of convex subregions. Secondly, the current MCCPP algorithm suffers from duplicate coverage of connection paths, uneven task allocation, and failure to consider the robot's extra energy consumption. This paper adopts the Dijkstra algorithm to plan the shortest non-duplicated connected paths between any subregions; improves the existing objective function by combining with the actual; and retains the high-quality gene fragments for chromosome crossover according to the breakpoints. Finally, the improved Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm (NSGA-II) is simulated in real planting areas, and the total connected paths and planting area balance were optimized compared to the traditional NSGA-II.
  Keywords: precision agriculture; multi-robots; complete coverage path planning; NSGA-II; non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2024.10067304
   
  
• Multi-mode servo braking control and experimentation of integrated electro-hydraulic braking system  
  by Houhua Jing, Liwen Dong, Qinggan Lin, Haifeng Liu 
  Abstract: As the critical problem of electric servo braking control, the relationship between hydraulic pressure, motor position and motor current is systematically analyzed. A large hysteresis exists in the pressure-position relationship. Then a multi-mode servo braking control law is proposed on the basis of experimental tests. Firstly, the influence of nonlinear friction is overcome by dither compensation to improve the smoothness of position and pressure. Secondly, the pressure-current cascade control is applied, and the feedforward is obtained based on the experimental data, which effectively avoids the nonlinear and uncertain influence of pressure-position relationship. Thirdly, position-current cascade control is applied to realize the accurate return of the motor in the release process, and overcome the influence of pressure-position large hysteresis and dead zone. Finally, the control method is comprehensively verified and analyzed based on the experimental bench. The practicability of the method is verified.
  Keywords: integrated electro-hydraulic braking; servo braking control; multi-mode control; pressure control; position control.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2024.10068496
   
  
• Integrated ASMO-DCKF state observer for distributed drive vehicles  
  by Peng Ji, Fengrui Han, Yifan Zhao 
  Abstract: Addressing the issue of inadequate information correction capabilities between the vehicle tire force observer and state estimator, this study introduces an estimation algorithm that combines an adaptive synovial tire force observer with a double-cubature Kalman filtering state estimator (ASMO-DCKF). Firstly, a seven-degree-of-freedom vehicle model is established, and a synovium observer is used to estimate tire forces. A saturation function is utilized as a substitute for singular values to address system oscillation issues. Then, double-cubature Kalman filter state estimators are used: one for vehicle state estimation and the other for road adhesion coefficient estimation, these two estimators mutually correct each other to enhance accuracy in estimating vehicle and road conditions. The Speedgoat-CarSim hardware-in-the-loop simulation platform is established for examining the proposed algorithm under typical operating conditions and comparing it with EKF algorithm, the results demonstrate a notable enhancement in robustness and accuracy of the proposed algorithm proposed over the EKF algorithm.
  Keywords: tire force observation; vehicle state estimation; adaptive synovial observer; double-cubature Kalman filter; road adhesion coefficient.
  
  
• Study on the transient dynamics of an electric driving system considering the interference fit and thermal expansion effects of tapered roller bearings  
  by Ming Li, Yufa Zhou, Dong Guo, Chuan Fang, Rao Wenyi 
  Abstract: The dynamic characteristics of the electric driving system in pure electric vehicles are explored in this paper, with consideration given to the effects of bearing interference fit and thermal expansion. Various factors such as radial stiffness of the bearings, axial stiffness of the bearings, gear mesh stiffness, and backlash were taken into account. A transient dynamic model suitable for transient conditions of electric driving system was established. The model's accuracy has been verified through bench tests. The effects of bearing interference fit and thermal expansion on the dynamic characteristics of the electric driving system under tip in/out conditions were studied. Research shows that under tip in/out conditions, as the interference amount and temperature of the tapered roller bearing increase, the fluctuation amplitude of the motor rotor speed has a downward trend. The amplitude of vibration acceleration fluctuations in the bearing seats of each shaft has been reduced.
  Keywords: electric driving system; tip in/out; transient dynamics; bearing interference fit; bearing thermal expansion.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10069795
   
  
• Effect of different winding patterns on parasitic capacitance in common mode chokes  
  by Ziyan Wang, Q.I. LI, Dangfang Wang, Haonan Sun 
  Abstract: New energy vehicle electric propulsion systems employ wide-bandgap devices including SiC and GaN, which can cause more severe EMC and EMI issues. Accurate modelling of the filter components, including common mode chokes, is of great importance. The parasitic capacitance in the common mode choke has a major influence on the high-frequency noise suppression performance, and is determined by several factors, including the material permittivity, the geometric parameters and the winding patterns. However, the effect of different winding patterns on the parasitic capacitance of the common mode choke has not been fully researched. This paper aims to reduce the research deficit by comparing the parasitic capacitance of the two different winding patterns, i e, the conventional sectional winding and the bifilar winding in common mode chokes. Expressions for calculating the parasitic capacitance of the two types of chokes are derived by developing the physics-based models.
  Keywords: electric propulsion systems; common mode chokes; equivalent parasitic capacitance; winding patterns.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10070047
   
  
• Coordinated longitudinal and vertical control of corner module vehicles based on groundtyre adhesion on rugged slopes  
  by Hongliang Wang, Huadong Tao, Dawei Pi, Weihua Wang, Yijie Chen, Xianhui Wang 
  Abstract: The incongruity between the low coefficient of adhesion and the high wheel load at the potholes of rugged ramps reduces the passability of the corner module vehicle. To address this problem, this paper proposes a collaborative control method of longitudinal and vertical dynamics with the target of optimal utilization of the vehicle's overall attachment ellipse. Firstly, this research analyzes the coupling relationship between wheel load and adhesion, combines it with the dynamic identification of the adhesion coefficient of each wheel, and proposes an active suspension control strategy that realizes the optimal matching of wheel load and adhesion coefficient. Furthermore, this paper proposes a drive torque distribution strategy that integrates dynamics and driving stability in conjunction with ellipse boundary identification. The simulation results show that the proposed strategy can dynamically coordinate vertical load and torque distribution. Furthermore, the maximum climbing speed is increased by 8.1% over the simple control approach.
  Keywords: corner module vehicle; longitudinal and vertical coordination; active suspension control; drive torque distribution.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10070137
   
  
• Multi-vehicle trajectory planning at unsignalized intersections based on cooperative vehicle-infrastructure system  
  by Yangjie Ji, Ziru Yang, Yanjun Huang, Zhuoping Yu 
  Abstract: Collaboration between infrastructures and connected and autonomous vehicles (CAVs) at unsignalized intersections has emerged as an effective strategy for improving transportation efficiency. To enhance the safety and efficiency of CAVs passing through unsignalized intersections, this paper proposes a cooperative vehicle-infrastructure system (CVIS) based multi-vehicle trajectory planning architecture. The architecture comprises a roadside planner and vehicle planners. The roadside planner formulates the problem of generating multi-vehicle trajectories as an optimization task and addresses it using an improved particle swarm optimization approach along with a space-time voxels strategy to determine the times for vehicles to reach the intersection and the trajectories passing through it. Then, the vehicle planner plans according to the results of the roadside planner. The results show that our approach enables potentially conflicting CAVs to pass through unsignalized intersections without stopping and waiting, ensuring safety while improving traffic efficiency.
  Keywords: cooperative vehicle-infrastructure system; connected and autonomous vehicles; multi-vehicle trajectory planning.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10070249
   
  
• Vibration characteristics and active control strategy of hybrid vehicle dual-motor electric drive system under transient impact conditions  
  by Shuaishuai Ge, Mengke Li, Shuang Hou, Zhengqiu Xie, Zhigang Zhang, Hang Wu 
  Abstract: For torsional vibration due to transient impact loads such as road surface inequality during the driving process of a Hybrid Electric Vehicles(HEV),an electromechanical coupling dynamics model of the dual-motor electric drive system (DEDS) is established by considering the dynamic characteristics of the drive motors, the nonlinear meshing impact excitation of the gear transmission system, etc. The dynamic response and vibration characteristics of the DEDS are analysed during sudden step changes in load. On this basis, the fuzzy active disturbance rejection current compensation (F-ADRCC) control strategy is proposed, and fuzzy controller is applied to adapt the internal parameters of the F-ADRCC controller, to realise the active suppression of transient inrush vibration. The simulation results show that the vibration energy of the gear transmission system is significantly reduced after adopting the F-ADRCC control strategy. The research results can provide a theoretical reference for DEDS vibration damping of HEVs.
  Keywords: transient impact conditions; vibration characteristics; dual-motor electric drive system; active control strategy; fuzzy controller.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2024.10070325
   
  
• An adaptive sliding mode control for four-wheel HUB electric vehicle yaw stability control  
  by Yuanjie Ma, Xinglin Zhou, Maoping Ran 
  Abstract: This paper aims to improve the stability of four-wheel electric vehicles driven by hub motors. An adaptive sliding mode control (ASMC) is proposed to estimate the additional yaw moment required for stability control system of passenger vehicles. Then the additional yaw moment is distributed to the wheel hub motor through designed optimal distribution controller. The stability of the controller is verified by Lyapunov method. A hierarchical control structure is applied throughout the system. The upper layer is an ASMC, and the lower layer is an optimal distributor for distributing the additional yaw moment to wheels under constraints. The co-simulation between Matlab/Simulink and CarSim shows that the controller suggested in this work performs better in terms of control than traditional sliding mode control (SMC). Moreover, it demonstrates a noteworthy enhancement impact on vehicle stability and driver comfort.
  Keywords: distributed drive; yaw stability control; driving torque distribution; co-simulation.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2024.10070365
   
  
• Research on fusion control of driving anti-skid and hill starting for distributed driving vehicles  
  by Hongliang Wang, Zhiwei Liu, Pi Dawei, Xiong Wang, Weihua Wang, Jinxiang Wu, Yongjun Yan 
  Abstract: Improvement of off-road passability and safety of off-road vehicles, a hill starting control method fusing drive anti-slip control technology is proposed. Firstly, the axle load adaptive torque distribution method for torque pre-distribution, and secondly, based on the coupling relationship between the attachment force, driving force and braking force in hill start, the braking retardation method is used to identify the wheel attachment state, The wheel drive torque and braking torque of the slipping wheels are limited by the maximum transferable torque method, and the loss torque of the slipping wheels is distributed to the other wheels according to the slipping state and axle load ratio of each wheel , Subsequently, establish a logic threshold-based distributed drive system and electronic parking system (EPB) cooperative control method to adjust the braking force of the parking brake in real time. Finally, comparative studies and simulations confirm its effectiveness.
  Keywords: distributed driving; hill start; EPB; anti-skid control.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10070440
   
  
• Analysing the impact of magnetic coupler materials for wireless power transfer in electric vehicles  
  by Ankur Yadav, Tushar Kanti Bera 
  Abstract: This research analyzes the effect of different magnetic materials on the performance of electric vehicle wireless power transfer (WPT) systems. It provides the basics of designing a 3D coil and coupler using Ansys Maxwell 3D design software. The study demonstrates how the selection of magnetic materials affects the performance and overall reliability of theWPTsystem. Ansys Maxwell analyzes different material parameters such as coupling coefficient (k), mutual inductance (M), and self-inductance (L) of the coil and coupler materials, as well as magnetic flux density (B), magnetic field strength (H), energy, and thermal effects for various air gaps (ranging from 40mmto 200mm)between transmission and receiving coils. Matlab is used to verify performance in terms of output voltage, current, power, and power transfer efficiency. Notably, the highest power transfer efficiency was 94.3% with an 80 mm air gap for ferrite, which weighs approximately 30.4 kg and has dimensions of 400 mm x 400 mm x 20 mm.With alloy steel, the weight is 50.67 kg, and the power transfer efficiency is 73.9% with the same 80 mm air gap.
  Keywords: materials; ferrite shielding; permalloy; nickel-iron; alloy steel; WPT; wireless power transfer; Ansys Maxwell; coil geometry; magnetic coupler.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10070441
   
  
• Throttle valve design and control of a hydraulic hub-motor auxiliary system  
  by Chilin Liu, Yuhai Wang 
  Abstract: To realize the differential control of hydraulic motor in a hydraulic hub-motor auxiliary system (HHMAS), this research aims to change the flow rate of motor inlet based on the active control of throttle valve flow. On the bases of the HHMAS characteristics, the design and detailed modeling of the throttle valve are carried out, and the working mechanism and dynamic characteristics of the throttle valve are systematically revealed, laying the foundation for the active control of the fixed displacement motor oil inlet flow. Furthermore, the flow control method based on proportional-integral-derivative (PID) and feedforward + feedback are developed and the stability of control system is validated. Simulation results show that the feedforward + feedback control method has better robustness and control effect than the PID feedback regulation.
  Keywords: hydraulic hub-motor auxiliary system; throttle valve design; PID control; feedforward + feedback control.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2024.10070575
   
  
• Analysis and optimisation of a new Septal coil in-wheel switched reluctance motor  
  by Dongyu Yang, Zhenjie Zhang, Yanyan Ding 
  Abstract: To enhance the average torque and torque density of in-wheel switched reluctance motors (IWSRM) for electric vehicles, a novel four-phase 16/18 IWSRM with the segmented coil is proposed. The basic structure and electromagnetic characteristics of the new IWSRM are analyzed. Based on finite element analysis, the magnetic flux linkage, magnetic co-energy, inductance, and torque characteristics are studied and compared with the typical four-phase 16/18 IWSRM and 16/20 IWSRM with traditional winding structure. The results show the new IWSRM has higher average torque under medium/low current conditions. A multi-objective optimization function based on average torque and torque density is established. The stator pole arc and rotor pole arc are selected for optimizing the new IWSRM. The results without and with optimization indicate the average torque and torque density of the motor can respectively be improved by 21.6% and 16.7% under a current of 100 A.
  Keywords: in-wheel switched reluctance motor; Septal coil; finite element analysis; multi-objective optimization.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10070654
   
  
• Research on modelling and extracting methods for personalised driver longitudinal operation features  
  by Jin Zhilin, Juntao Kong, Chao Yang, Shilong Cao 
  Abstract: The characteristic parameters of driver manipulation are crucial for research into human-machine co-driving control strategies in intelligent vehicles. This paper proposes an experimental data-driven modeling and extraction method for accurately obtaining the longitudinal operation feature parameters of drivers. First, a driver manipulation experimental platform and a fuzzy data collection method are created in order to collect longitudinal manipulation experimental data for aggressive and non-aggressive drivers. The feature model is then built using an experimental data-driven deep neural network training method. Combining the feature model and PD theory, feature parameters are extracted using a hierarchical method. Furthermore, experiments and simulations are carried out for two types of drivers. The results demonstrate that the validation set of the feature model has an RMS error of less than 5%. The extracted feature parameters' values are within the longitudinal operation feature value range and can reflect the personalized driver longitudinal operation characteristics.
  Keywords: personalised driver; longitudinal operation feature model; fuzzy data collection method; deep neural network training method; hierarchical extraction method.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10070782
   
  
• Leakage and dispersion characteristics of hydrogen from hydrogen storage system of fuel cell truck  
  by Shu Liu, Ren He 
  Abstract: The hydrogen storage system of the fuel cell truck is arranged in a semi-confined cabin. The hydrogen disperses quickly and accumulates during a leak, raising safety concerns. Studies on the hydrogen leakage and diffusion behaviours are important to ensure hydrogen safety. The analyses on the influence of leak rate, leak orifice location, ambient wind velocity and direction on the characteristics of hydrogen dispersion are conducted in this article. The results indicate that the flammable region and hydrogen concentration at detecting points increase with leak rate. The leak path is significantly influenced by the obstacles. An extensive cloud of hydrogen easily accumulates on the top and bottom of the cabin when the leakage orifice faces the wall of the cabin. A more narrow profile of hydrogen cloud distributes and the hydrogen at the top of the cabin disperses effectively driven by the wind.
  Keywords: fuel cell truck; high-pressure hydrogen cylinder; semi-confined enclosure; hydrogen leakage; dispersion; hydrogen safety; numerical simulation.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10070783
   
  
• Design and damping matching method for a novel decoupled suspension system  
  by J.N. WANG, Zhe Liu, Da Wang, Zhonghao Li, Guanrong Chen 
  Abstract: To address the coupling of stiffness and damping in the suspension system of high-performance vehicles under heave and roll manoeuvres, this paper designs a decoupled suspension system and proposes a damping matching method. First, the motion characteristics of various decoupled suspension structures are analysed, leading to the development of the decoupled suspension in which roll stiffness is provided by a torsion bar. Then, damper selection and testing are conducted, and the damping matching method for the decoupled suspension system is proposed. Finally, three tests are conducted: multi-body dynamics simulation for decoupling analysis, lap time simulation for the vehicle performance, and real-vehicle test for the symmetry of the damper motion. The results show that a race car equipped with the decoupled suspension achieves shorter lap times compared to one with a traditional suspension, and the proposed damping matching method provides an ideal baseline for suspension design and tuning.
  Keywords: race car; decoupled suspension; damping matching; multi-body dynamics simulation; lap time simulation.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10071185
   
  
• Grey comprehensive evaluation method of a passenger vehicle adaptive cruise control system  
  by Zhige Chen, Zhigang Zhang, Kai Yang, Chengcheng Qian, Xiaolin Tang 
  Abstract: The automated driving assistance function technology cannot undergo development without objective test evaluation methods. However, subjective evaluation by independent experts is required in the evaluation, which leads to subjectivity in the direct results. This study uses the i-VISTA test specification to obtain objective and reasonable results. It combines natural Chinese driving data to develop test scenarios that meet national traffic conditions. Taking the adaptive cruise control system function as an example, we propose a gray comprehensive evaluation method based on a subjective-objective wide weighting of the ACC system. First, we use the analytic hierarchy process method and entropy method to obtain the comprehensive subjectiveobjective wide weight coefficients of evaluation indices, respectively. Then, we apply the comprehensive weight to the grey method, which provides superior subjective and objective evaluation consistency. Compared with the traditional method, it overcomes the arbitrariness of the subjective assignment method and is more objective and reasonable.
  Keywords: entropy value method; grey relational analysis; automated vehicles; real scenario test.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10071186
   
  
• Adaptive path tracking for all-wheel steering heavy-duty vehicles based on model predictive control  
  by Yunpeng Li, Shangwen Li, Peng Li, Qihan Wang, Hengyang Sun, Yanjun Huang 
  Abstract: This paper proposes a control algorithm with an adaptive adjustment strategy based on model predictive control (MPC) for all-wheel steering multiaxle vehicles. Firstly, the dynamics of a three-axle vehicle is analysed and modelled, followed by an all-wheel steering path tracking strategy. Secondly, the boundary features of road curvature radius are obtained based on various cornering manoeuvre tests under different operating conditions, which lay a foundation for steering axles switching. In addition, an adaptive adjustment strategy is developed to decide which and how to activate the steering axle according to driving conditions. Finally, simulation is conducted based on a mixed road scenario in TruckSim/Simulink, verifying that the proposed all-wheel steering strategy with an adaptive axle adjustment approach provides a higher path tracking accuracy, a better vehicle stability, and a stronger robustness compared to the front-wheel steering strategy.
  Keywords: three-axle heavy-duty vehicles; MPC; model predictive control; all-wheel steering; path tracking; adaptive steering axle adjustment.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10071426
   
  
• A novel scheme on adaptive cruise strategy for intelligent vehicles considering pavement types  
  by Shuo Bai, Lilin Shen, Xin Bai, Haonan Ding, Guoshun Cai, Weihua Wang, Guodong Yin 
  Abstract: Establishing an adaptive cruise strategy which can have an outstanding performance under various pavement types is extremely necessary to decision making for intelligent vehicles. Whereas, existing research for Tire-road friction coefficient (TRFC) estimation ignore the influence of state mutation and noise uncertainty, which will lead to an unsatisfying estimation precision. To address these problems, adaptive strong tracking square-root cubature Kalman filter (ASTSCKF) is proposed to guarantee the precision for TRFC estimation, which is composed of Sage-Husa noise estimator and strong tracing filtering. Simulation and vehicle testing based on the simulator platform indicate that ASTSCKF is capable of estimating TRFC more accurately than Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) and Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF), showing strong anti-interference to different pavement types. The proposed cruise scheme also displays an excellent tracking performance on the leading vehicle, which verifies the feasibility of the cruise scheme.
  Keywords: tyre-road friction coefficient estimation; strong tracing filtering; noise estimator; intelligent vehicles.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10071749
   
  
• Design of safety integrated experience smart cabin hardware-in-the-loop system  
  by Tianyang Wang, Taisong Cui, Dekuan Kong, Changqing Yin, Yulin Han, Dangfang Wang 
  Abstract: To ensure comprehensive safety policy verification and effective human-computer interaction evaluation in automotive smart cabins, this paper introduces a sophisticated Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) system. This system is equipped with advanced motion simulation and scenario simulation capabilities, enabling realistic driving experience tests. The paper provides a detailed description of the entire system architecture, encompassing the functional definition of each subsystem, the meticulous selection of both hardware and software components, and the critical design parameters. Additionally, the paper presents the application of this platform for pre-collision strategy verification and a thorough driving experience evaluation of the active control retractor, showcasing the system's practical utility and robustness.
  Keywords: hardware-in-the-loop; smart cabin; active control retractor; motion simulation; driving experience.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10072130
   
  
• Adaptive anti-slip wheel-speed synchronisation control for hill drive of distributed-drive electric vehicles  
  by Shuaishuai Ge, Hao Wang, Zhigang Zhang, Huan Wang 
  Abstract: Distributed-drive electric vehicles (DDEVs) are prone to wheel slippage when driven on low-friction slopes, particularly when their center of gravity changes. This study proposes an anti-slip wheel-speed synchronization control for ramps based on adaptive drive-torque redistribution (ASWSSC-R-ADTR) to address this issue. A dynamic model including the chassis and motor drive system is developed using Amesim and MATLAB/Simulink to study the dynamic characteristics of DDEVs during acceleration, startup, and straight-line driving. The performance of the ASWSSC-R-ADTR is compared with that of other control strategies in terms of longitudinal slip and acceleration on various slopes. Furthermore, the anti-interference and anti-slip capabilities of ASWSSC-R-ADTR are evaluated for sudden changes in the vehicle center of mass. The results demonstrate that ASWSSC-R-ADTR effectively addresses excessive wheel slippage and exhibits excellent robustness.
  Keywords: distributed drive; ramp anti-slip; synchronisation control; torque distribution; mass centre shift.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJVD.2025.10072247