Title: Passenger comfort over time: stationary vs. driven scenarios and implications for study design

Authors: Melina Makris; Anna-Lisa Osvalder; Katarina Bohman

Addresses: Division Design and Human Factors, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden ' Division Design and Human Factors, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden ' Volvo Car Corporation, Gothenburg, Sweden

Abstract: Assessing passengers' car comfort is resource-intensive, highlighting the need for efficient study designs. This study examined how scenario type (stationary vs. driven) and duration influence the sitting comfort of belted rear-seat passengers. Nineteen participants completed two 45-minute sessions, with comfort assessments at 15-minute intervals through questionnaires, interviews, and videos. Comfort decreased within 15 minutes in both scenarios (r > 0.750), with further decreases in the stationary scenario between 15 and 45 minutes (r > 1.000), where increased self-awareness encouraged critical assessments. In contrast, comfort stabilised in the driven scenario, reflecting natural postural adjustments and psychological comfort. Shorter stationary studies (~15 minutes) capture decreases in overall comfort, longer stationary studies (~45 minutes) capture discomfort across multiple body regions, and longer driven studies (~45 minutes) capture postural adjustments and shoulder movement for passengers with certain body shapes. Overall, this study provides practical implications for designing efficient studies of passenger comfort in cars.

Keywords: car comfort; car discomfort; passenger comfort; passenger discomfort; driving study; stationary study; method development; practical implications; comfort study design.

DOI: 10.1504/IJHFE.2025.153780

International Journal of Human Factors and Ergonomics, 2025 Vol.12 No.4, pp.349 - 366

Received: 06 Oct 2025
Accepted: 12 Jan 2026
Published online: 26 May 2026 *