Title: Large language models: state-of-the-art techniques, applications and emerging trends

Authors: M. Deepadharshana; S. Vijayarani

Addresses: Department of Computer Science, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore – 641046, India ' Department of Computer Science, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore – 641046, India

Abstract: An advanced artificial intelligence system called a large language model (LLM) is made to understand and provide language that resembles that of human beings. Built on deep learning models, particularly transformer architecture, LLMs leverage massive datasets and sophisticated neural network structures to excel in different types of language-based tasks. These models employ essential components such as self-attention mechanisms, embedding layers, and dense feed-forward layers to collect the syntactic and semantic fine details of language. Through extensive pre-training on diverse text corpora, LLMs learn intricate linguistic patterns, enabling them to execute jobs like translation, summarisation, accurate question answering, and text completion. LLMs are crucial in domains like content creation, customer service, and scientific research. The transformer architecture uses self-attention and feed-forward layers to process sequential data efficiently without recurrence. This architecture is widely used in natural language processing operations like text generation and translation.

Keywords: large language model; LLM; BERT; artificial neural network; ANN; data annotation; transformer; self-attention.

DOI: 10.1504/IJAISC.2025.149613

International Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Soft Computing, 2025 Vol.9 No.2, pp.85 - 105

Received: 18 Nov 2024
Accepted: 27 Jun 2025
Published online: 07 Nov 2025 *

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