International Journal of Materials Engineering Innovation (25 papers in press)

Regular Issues

• Experimental investigation on mechanical properties of FDM fabricated hexachiral auxetic structure under compressive loading  
  by Shailendra Kumar, Soham Teraiya, Rushikesh Badhe 
  Abstract: The present paper describes an experimental investigation on mechanical properties of hexachiral auxetic structure under compressive loading. Structures of polylactic acid (PLA) are fabricated using fused deposition modelling (FDM) technique of additive manufacturing (AM). Influence of two geometric parameters namely node radius and ligament thickness on compressive strength, compressive modulus, plateau strength and specific energy absorption (SEA) of hexachiral structures is studied. It is found that modulus is significantly influenced by both geometric parameters. For compressive strength, plateau strength and SEA, only node radius is found to be a significant parameter. All compressive properties increase with decrease in node radius and ligament thickness. Regression models are also developed to predict compressive properties of structure. To maximise the responses, optimisation of geometric parameters is performed.
  Keywords: mechanical properties; hexachiral; auxetic; structure; compression; fused deposition modelling; additive manufacturing.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMATEI.2023.10051276
   
  
• Enhancement of weld penetration in 2205 stainless steel by TIG welding novel variants  
  by Dipali Pandya, Amarish Badgujar, M.N. Qureshi, Nilesh Ghetiya 
  Abstract: The study compares the effects of welding joints made in 2205 duplex stainless steel with activated tungsten inert gas (A-TIG), flux-bounded TIG (FB-TIG) and flux-zone TIG (FZ-TIG). To examine the effects of activated fluxes welded by the A-TIG and FB-TIG welding procedures, four single component oxide fluxes (Cr2O3, MoO3, SiO2 and TiO2) are chosen. The highest penetration is achieved with SiO2 flux among all selected activated fluxes in A-TIG as well as in FB-TIG welds. FZ-TIG welding is performed with eight unique combinations of selected oxide fluxes. The maximum penetration is achieved in FZ-TIG welding with SiO2 as the centre region flux and Cr2O3 as the side region flux. The robust arc constriction and reversal Marangoni convection lead to higher penetration. The microstructure study shows that A-TIG and FZ-TIG weld joints form a more balanced structure of ferrite/austenite by forming larger laths of Widmanst
  Keywords: activated tungsten inert gas; A-TIG; flux-zone tungsten inert gas; FZ-TIG; flux-bounded tungsten inert gas; FB-TIG; weld bead geometry; Marangoni convection.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMATEI.2023.10051277
   
  
• Effect of Cryogenic Treatment on Non-Ferrous Materials: A Review  
  by Viren Parikh, Amarish Badgujar, M.N. Qureshi 
  Abstract: Enhancement of material properties has become an important factor in cost-cutting. To improve performance, materials are subjected to several processes such as heat treatment, peening, coating, and many more. Cryogenic treatment, or sub-zero heat treatment, is one such treatment that has made a substantial contribution to the improvement of several properties such as hardness, tensile strength, fatigue strength, wear rate, and corrosion rate of ferrous and non-ferrous materials. The present article focuses on the effect of cryogenic treatment on non-ferrous materials. The article discusses the variation in microstructure and mechanical properties of non-ferrous materials when subjected to cryogenic treatment. Furthermore, the effects of the soaking period, soaking temperature, number of cryogenic cycles, and other process parameters related to cryogenic treatment have been considered for discussion.
  Keywords: cryogenic treatment; heat treatment; non-ferrous material; mechanical properties; microstructure.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMATEI.2023.10051776
   
  
• Development of Kevlar-Ultrahigh Molecular Weight Polyethylene Composites for Ballistic Applications  
  by Santhosh Sundharesan, Anand Narayanan Nair 
  Abstract: The present study aims at developing a new composite material for bullet-proof vest used in defence applications. The components of the composite were Kevlar, ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene, combined with and without natural date fibre mixed in epoxy resin. Different combinations of polymeric layers were fabricated to form compact sandwich plates by hard pressing. Then ballistic tests were done with standard 9 mm bullets to assess the suitability of the materials for real firing conditions at common firing ranges of 20 m and 25 m. A comparison in penetration resistance of the composite plates with and without date fibres was made and it was observed that the sandwich plates with date fibres was observed to be better resistant to the firings.
  Keywords: Kevlar; epoxy; armour; fibre; firing.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMATEI.2023.10051980
   
  
• EFFECT OF pH ON DEVELOPMENT OF SUPERHYDROPHOBIC COATING ON STAINLESS STEEL  
  by Vipul Kumar Mishra, Ravi Shankar Raman 
  Abstract: In this research Nanocomposite coatings were electrically co-deposited on AISI 304 using a Watts bath with two distinct ceramic particles (ZnO and TiO2) without the use of any surfactants to develop nanocomposite coatings with improved hardness and hydrophobic property. The influence of Electro co-deposition process parameters was tuned and the main focus was on the variation of properties by the changing of pH. In this paper two pH 3.5 and 4.0 are used and tried to study the comparative results The coating hardness was found to be directly impacted by the kind of ceramic dispersions on different pH, with TiO2 dispersion producing the highest value at pH 4.0, followed by ZnO at 4.0 pH. Also, the superhydrophobic property was measured using a contact angle test and found that Ni- TiO2 coating with pH 4.0 has the highest contact angle of 149
  Keywords: Nanocomposite; Superhydrophobic; Coatings; Electro co-deposition; Electroplating; pH; Contact Angle; Zinc Oxide (ZnO) and Titanium Dioxide (TiO2).
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMATEI.2023.10054207
   
  
• Numerical and Experimental studies of thin super duplex stainless steel GTAW joints  
  by Sujeet Kumar, Vimal KEK 
  Abstract: Super duplex stainless steel (SDSS) thin sheets are welded together in this study by adjusting the welding speed (250
  Keywords: three-point bending; super duplex stainless steel; SDSS; welding current; butt joint tensile test; welded joint.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMATEI.2023.10054846
   
  
• Influence of alkali pre-treatments on the physio-mechanical, tribological and thermal performance of hemp fiber reinforced phenolic brake friction material  
  by Mithul Naidu, Ajit Bhosale 
  Abstract: Five variants of friction bio-composites were developed
  Keywords: hemp fibres; alkali pretreatments; physio-mechanical performance; tribological performance; Taguchi method; thermo-gravimetric analysis.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMATEI.2023.10054847
   
  
• Characterization of TiNiNbZr quaternary alloy by atomic force microscopy and nanoindentation  
  by Mairaj Ahmad 
  Abstract: Effect of thermal treatments (solution treatment, annealing, and aging) and Zr content on microstructure and mechanical properties of TiNiNbZr quaternary alloy was investigated using optical microscopy, atomic force microscopy (AFM), micro-Vicker, and nanoindentation. These samples were solution treated at 950
  Keywords: atomic force microscopy; AFM; nanoindentation; advanced characterisation; nano and microhardness; elastic modulus; nitinol; TiNiNbZr quaternary alloy.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMATEI.2023.10054870
   
  
• Experimental Investigation and Characterization of Two-Phase Graphene Modified Epoxy Nanocomposites.  
  by Mahendra Shelar, V.B. Suryawanshi 
  Abstract: Graphene’s exceptional qualities have piqued the interest of scientists and business people alike. Its potential as a reinforcement in composite materials is another area where it has attracted a lot of attention from researchers. Graphene with its remarkable properties stands out as the most important nanofiller for reinforcement. Graphene’s dispersion and interfacial adhesion with the polymer determine the composite’s performance. In this study, graphene was dispersed effectively in epoxy resin through a multi-stage process. The tensile behaviour of the nanocomposite was studied to determine the effect of the addition of various weight percents of graphene on the mechanical properties of epoxy resin. The fractured surfaces were analysed using a scanning electron microscope. The tensile test revealed that, compared to pure epoxy, the graphene-reinforced epoxy has higher tensile strength and Young’s modulus of 15.33% and 31%, respectively, at 0.2 wt.%. For a larger graphene content, tensile strength was lower than epoxy.
  Keywords: dispersion; graphene; polymer composite; mechanical characterisation.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMATEI.2023.10055224
   
  
• EFFECTS OF TiO2 AND Ag NANOPARTICLES ON MICROSTRUCTURE AND MICROHARDNESS OF AZ91D HYBRID COMPOSITE BY FSP  
  by Ram Niwas Singh, Vikas Kumar 
  Abstract: In the present study, hybrid magnesium-based surface composites were created via FSP, and the impact of tool speeds, plunger depth, number of passes, and tilt angles on the microstructure and hardness were examined. TiO2 nanoparticles and Ag nanoparticles were packed in grooves in equal ratios. Microhardness test, optical scanning, and FESEM were used to assess the composite surfaces. The findings showed that grain size increased with increasing rotational speed and the number of passes but decreased with increasing travel speed. It was also revealed that the distribution of the nanoparticles and hardness are directly related. The maximum microhardness stir zone (SZ) of hybrid composites was 120 Hv, significantly higher than base metal (63 Hv).
  Keywords: friction stir processing; FSP; magnesium alloy; microstructure modification; hardness.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMATEI.2023.10055434
   
  
• Parametric Optimization and Experimental Modelling of AWJ Machining of GFRP Composite  
  by Anil Kumar Dahiya, Basanta Kumar Bhuyan, Shailendra Kumar 
  Abstract: Abrasive water jet machining (AWJM) is extensively employed for machining composites such as glass fibre-reinforced polymers (GFRP). AWJM is proven to be efficient and economical for material processing in manufacturing industries, in which a high-speed abrasive water jet is impinged on workpiece surface to erode material to get the desired shape. In this paper, experiments are performed to study the kerf taper (Kt) in AWJ machined GFRP composite according to response surface methodology (RSM) based on the central composite design (CCD) approach. Water pressure (WP), traverse rate (TR), stand-off distance (SOD) and abrasive mass flow rate (AMFR) are considered to study their influence on kerf taper. Optimisation of parameters is executed by applying the desirability technique to minimise the kerf taper. In order to validate the results, confirmation tests have been carried out and which show less than 4.535% of error. Thereafter, an experimental model (second-order mathematical) is made for kerf taper by using RSM. From the analysis, it has been found that the predicted values are very close to the experimental results with a deviation of less than 4%.
  Keywords: glass fibre-reinforced polymers; GFRP; abrasive water jet machining; AWJM; kerf taper; optimisation; modelling; response surface methodology; RSM; desirability.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMATEI.2023.10055435
   
  
• Experimental Investigation of the effect of Micro-Arc Oxidation (MAO) Coating on Al-5456 alloy  
  by Kushal Chandel, Sayon Pramanik, SAURABH KUMAR MAURYA, Alakesh Manna 
  Abstract: Paper presents the parametric impacts of micro
  Keywords: MAO; coating thickness; surface roughness; microhardness; corrosion resistance.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMATEI.2023.10055725
   
  
• Investigation of sustainable production opportunity in fabrication of hybrid Aluminum metal matrix composites by Powder Metallurgy technique  
  by Anup Choudhury, Jajneswar Nanda, Sankar Narayan Das, Kamalakanta Muduli, Srikanth Bathula 
  Abstract: The impact of date palm leaf powder (DPLP) as a reinforcement material in pure aluminium-alumina composites in improvement of physico-mechanical and morphological properties is investigated in this work. The fabricated hybrid composite is made up of a set amount of aluminium and various percentages of DPLP and alumina in weight% ratios of 1:4, 2:3, 3:2, 4:1. To evaluate the individual features of reinforcements and matrix, particle size distribution (PSD), X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and CHNSO studies were used. Specimens were prepared with compacting pressure 474 MPa, two hours sintering time, 600
  Keywords: date palm leaf powder; sintering temperature and time; conventional powder metallurgy; scanning electron microscopy; SEM.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMATEI.2023.10055926
   
  
• Characterization and Evaluation of Al-8011 Metal Matrix Composites Reinforced with B4C+Carbon Nano Tubes Particulate  
  by Shivaprakash S., H.K. Shivanand, Srinath M. K., Din Bandhu 
  Abstract: In this study, a novel metal matrix composite (MMC) was created by reinforcing an Al-8011 alloy with carbon nanotube (CNT) and boron carbide (B4C) hybrid particles. The composites’ density (?), Poisson’s ratio (v), and Young’s modulus (E) were calculated using the rule of mixture. Hardness, tensile, and compression strengths were measured on relevant specimens according to ASTM standards. The hybrid reinforced composite (5% B4C + 1.5% CNT) reached 123.6 HRA in the hardness test. 5% B4C + 1.5% CNT reinforcement improved tensile strength to 310.2 MPa. Compression strength, on the other hand, reduced as B4C and CNT percentages increased. For applications demanding the greatest hardness and tensile stresses, the MMC of Al-8011 alloys with 5% B4C and 1.5% CNT was optimal. For the most compressive applications, it was determined that Al-8011 doped with 1% B4C and 1.5% CNT would be the optimal choice. The hybrid reinforcements of B4C and CNT improved the composite, making it suitable for structural applications.
  Keywords: stir-casting; Al-8011; hybrid reinforcement; boron carbide; carbon nano tubes; mechanical attributes.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMATEI.2023.10056325
   
  
• 3D printed cellulose nanofiber-PLA nanocomposites: Experimental investigations and multi-objective optimization  
  by Mugdha Dongre, V.B. Suryawanshi, Y.R. Suryawanshi, Sujatha Parmeswaran 
  Abstract: By incorporating cellulose nanofibres (CNFs) into the polymer matrix, bio-nanocomposites gain more stiffness and tensile strength. FFF is a popular 3D printing technique because of its affordability and simplicity. Many printing parameters affect component cost and function, making process settings for part quality difficult to determine. This work focuses on experimental analysis and multi-objective optimisation of FFF printing parameters and different CNF concentrations for PLA-CNF nanocomposites. The effects of layer thickness, raster angle, and CNF concentration on tensile strength, elastic modulus, toughness, and warpage are analysed. The different responses were combined into single number using TOPSIS (multi attribute performance index
  Keywords: polylactic acid; PLA; cellulose nanofibre; CNF; nanocomposites; fused filament fabrication; FFF; multi objective optimisation; mechanical properties; TOPSIS.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMATEI.2023.10056989
   
  
• Synthesis and Study of Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4) For Lithium Ion Batteries  
  by Swapnil Potdar, Shashank Kawar 
  Abstract: Development of Lithium Ion Batteries is an essential energy storage technology for different applications. A novel combination of materials are proposed for development of the cathode material of Lithium Ion Batteries. Through the research paper we are proposing synthesis of Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4) cathode material using hydrothermal process. In these assumptions, the time is kept constant and temperature is varied from 1300C to 1600C. Further, study of different parameters like Grain Size, Morphology, and Electro Chemical properties are critically observed by varying temperature by Hydrothermal Synthesis process. Study the properties of the synthesized films by the XRD, SEM and TGA techniques. Finally, the electrochemical analysis is carried out to understand the performance of the prepared cathode material.
  Keywords: Rechargeable Battery; Discharge Control; Lithium-Ion; LiFePO4.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMATEI.2023.10057689
   
  
• Modelling Mechanical Behaviours of Polypropylene Sheet for Incremental Forming Process using graphic method  
  by Sy Le V. 
  Abstract: This paper presents modelling the mechanical behaviours of polypropylene sheet (PP) at room temperature. The standard linear solid model (SLS) is used to establish the constitutive equation for FEM simulation of incremental forming process for PP. The tensile, relaxation and creep tests are performed to calibrate the constituting model. This model is integrated into Abaqus environment by using a user-material subroutine in Fortran language. The cone model is simulated in this FEM environment and verified through lab experiments with model formed by the incremental forming process. The results show that the established constitutive model has responded well to the mechanical behaviour of PP. There is significant agreement between the simulated model and empirical experiments in terms of the thickness distribution and geometric accuracy.
  Keywords: polypropylene; PP; modelling; incremental forming; mechanical behaviour; standard linear solid model; SLS; ISF; constitutive equation.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMATEI.2023.10057690
   
  
• Preparation and Characterization of 3D Printed Bio-composites containing Carica Papaya Cellulose Nanofibers  
  by Mugdha Dongre, V.B. Suryawanshi, Y.R. Suryawanshi, Sujatha Parmeswaran 
  Abstract: For the first time, cellulose nanofibres (CNFs) were extracted from Carica papaya petioles using chemo-mechanical treatment. The obtained nanofibres were characterised by using field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and thermogravimetric analysis. The morphological studies confirmed the nanofibre dimensions in the range of 10
  Keywords: cellulose nanofibres; CNFs; polylactic acid; PLA; Carica papaya petioles; chemo-mechanical treatment; fused filament fabrication; FFF; mechanical properties.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMATEI.2023.10058893
   
  
• Modeling the Mechanical Properties and Stress Mapping of Aluminium Based Metal Matrix Composite Used in Brake Disc Rotor  
  by Ankit Roy Nandy, Ashraf Ali, Satadru Kashyap, Sushen Kirtania, Sanjib Banerjee 
  Abstract: Aluminium-based metal matrix composites (AMMCs) are extensively employed in industries due to their superior and unique properties such as high strength-to-weight ratio, specific modulus, hardness, wear resistance, and fatigue strength. In this research, the analysis of silicon carbide (SiC) reinforced AMMC was conducted for determination of elastic properties with varying volume fractions of their reinforcements. The elastic properties were calculated based on analytical models such as rule of mixture (ROM), Halpin-Tsai model and Shear-Lag model. Subsequently, this composite was considered as the material in a disc brake rotor, in order to study the stress mapping and its applicability. Traditionally used brake disc material, grey cast iron, was compared with the proposed SiC and CaCO3 reinforced AMMC, in order to study their deformation behaviour under compressive wear loading using FEM analysis. FEM was used to map the stress fields on the material and compared with grey cast iron-based disc brake rotor.
  Keywords: aluminium matrix composite; finite element modelling; FEM; wear resistance; calcium carbonate.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMATEI.2023.10059307
   
  
• Microstructure and mechanical study of SDSS thin sheet welded by CCTIG and PCTIG process  
  by Sujeet Kumar, Vimal KEK 
  Abstract: In this research paper, effects of pulsed current tungsten inert gas (PCTIG) welding process over constant current tungsten inert gas (CCTIG) welding process on the quality of weld joints produced in super duplex stainless steel material were investigated. Microstructure obtained by PCTIG welded joints is 40% more in number as compared to CCTIG welded joints which indicate finer grain structure in the weld zone of PCTIG welded joint. The tensile strength of CCTIG welded joints shows 8% of reduction and PCTIG welded joints shows 6.4% reduction as compared to the base metal. A three-point bending test was performed and found that the 2
  Keywords: super duplex stainless steel; tungsten inert gas; microstructures; tensile test; numerical simulation.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMATEI.2023.10059843
   
  
• Comparison of the Ductile Damage Models for Fracture Prediction of the Incremental Sheet Forming  
  by Sy Le V. 
  Abstract: Incremental sheet forming is a modern forming process which is suitable for fabricating unique product or small production batches. This paper focuses on prediction of mechanical damages occurring in ISF process with magnesium sheet at elevated temperature by using FEM simulation in Abaqus/explicit with four ductile damage models. The practical experiments with different tensile specimens have been conducted to calibrate the ductile damage models. By using a combination of mechanical test approach and FEM simulation, the stress triaxiality and fracture strain are identified, which helps find out the locus of ductile damage for each model. The simulated results are verified to those conducted in real experiment in terms of the type of mechanical failures and fracture location the simulated results show that CrachFEM and modified Mohr-Coulomb models can be used for predicting the ductile damage occurring in the SPIF process with magnesium sheet at elevated temperature.
  Keywords: constitutive equation; damage model; FEM simulation; incremental sheet forming; ISF; magnesium sheet; AZ31; ductile damage; damage criteria; Abaqus; SPIF.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMATEI.2023.10060122
   
  
• Evaluation of Wear Behaviour of Stir and Squeeze cast A356/SiC/Gr Hybrid composites using TOPSIS Method  
  by Dhanashekar M, Loganathan P, Mohan SR, Ayyanar S, Murali B 
  Abstract: This paper investigates the influence of stir and squeeze cast processes on the dry sliding wear behaviour of A356/ SiCp (5 wt.%) / Gr (0
  Keywords: squeeze cast; wear behaviour; optimisation; TOPSIS.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMATEI.2023.10060524
   
  
• Optimization of process parameters For Kerf Taper Using TM-GRA of GFRP Composite with AWJM  
  by Anil Kumar Dahiya, Basanta Kumar Bhuyan, Rishu Sharma, Puneet Kumar, Shailendra Kumar 
  Abstract: Machining and shaping of difficult-to-machine hard materials and composites like glass fibre reinforced polymers (GFRP) are very difficult and uneconomical due to their specific properties such as anisotropic and non-homogenous nature with the conventional machining process. Abrasive water jet machining (AWJM) is proven to be efficient and economical for material removal processing in manufacturing industries, in which a high-speed abrasive water jet is impinged on workpiece surface to erode material to get the desired shape. In this paper, experiments are performed to study the kerf taper (Kt) in AWJ machined GFRP composite according to Taguchi’s design-based L16 orthogonal array. Water pressure (WP), traverse rate (TR), stand-off distance (SOD) and abrasive mass flow rate (AMFR) are considered to study their influence on kerf taper. Optimisation of parameters is executed by applying the GRA technique to minimise the kerf taper. Subsequently, confirmation tests are conducted at the optimised set of parameters to validate the results. The average value for kerf taper from confirmation experiments is measured 0.2958.
  Keywords: glass fibre reinforced polymer; GFRP; abrasive mass flow rate; AWJM; kerf taper; optimisation; Taguchi; grey relational analysis; GRA.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMATEI.2024.10061328
   
  
• Evaluation of Elastic Properties of Graphene Nanoplatelet Reinforced Aluminum Matrix Nanocomposites  
  by Mousam Das, Sushen Kirtania, Satadru Kashyap, Sanjib Banerjee 
  Abstract: The present work puts forward the determination of elastic properties of graphene nanoplatelet (GNP) reinforced aluminium (Al) matrix nanocomposites, with different volume fractions and aspect ratios of GNP. Three analytical models (AMs), namely the Halpin-Tsai model, the Shear-Lag model, and the Gao-Zhang (GZ) model, were taken into consideration for the evaluation of Young's modulus of GNP/Al nanocomposite (GANC). Four cases with different dimensions of GNP have been considered for understanding the characteristics of different AMs. The Young’s modulus values calculated using different AMs have been compared with experimental results (EXRs). It was observed that the GZ model shows acceptable agreement with the EXRs. For further evaluation of Poisson’s ratio of GANC, two AMs, viz. rule of mixture (ROM) and Eshelby model have been used. It can also be concluded that for the evaluation of Poisson’s ratio, the Eshelby model is a better choice than ROM.
  Keywords: graphene nanoplatelet; GNP; metal matrix nanocomposite; Young’s modulus; Poisson’s ratio; analytical models; AMs.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMATEI.2024.10061329
   
  
• Bending processes precision and efficiency in the design and production of metal plates  
  by Bruno Silva, António Rocha, Daniel Miranda, Filipe Chaves 
  Abstract: This paper is focused on enhancing productivity and efficiency in the bending process of metal plates. With increasing demands for precision and productivity, companies must optimise their processes and resources. The project addresses the challenge of achieving reliability and efficiency in the bending process, considering various factors that influence metal sheet behaviour during bending. The project proposes a method that combines parametric modelling with the final piece after bending, utilising SolidWorks CAD software. By executing specimens of common bending angles, measuring bend deductions, and creating specific bending tables for SolidWorks, the project aims to improve bending reliability and effectiveness while reducing design times and errors. The results provide evidence of significant time reductions in CAD software treatments and effective production of compliant bending parts. The project also emphasises the importance of continuous process refinement for companies to maintain their competitiveness in the industry.
  Keywords: bend deduction; statistical process control; SolidWorks modelling; metal plates; precision; efficiency.
  DOI: 10.1504/IJMATEI.2024.10061780